It's September and time for Vancouver beekeepers to prepare for winter. Actually winter preparation is an ongoing task (Beekeeping Calendar for B.C.). The main reasons our bees die over the winter is starvation, colonies suffering from parasitic mite syndrome, too few bees to heat the cluster and moisture. I complete my winter hive setup by the middle of October. Much of what
you do in preparation depends on your management style of beekeeping
(virtually nothing for the extreme natural beekeeper to intense
management for others). This is a revised post from last year and are just a few
suggestions based on my experience keeping bees in Vancouver. Here is a beekeeper's fall checklist from the BC Tech Transfer Program which includes colony strength, brood diseases, mite monitoring, feeding and wrapping. Beekeeping is very location dependent so for those outside of Vancouver revise accordingly (Check out the Winter Management section of our library).
Something I practice is I never put to bed for winter a weak colony. When I say above, winter preparation is an ongoing task I mean addressing a weakness at it's infancy by treatment or requeening long before September. Adding frames of bees to a weak colony now won't make it a strong colony just a more populated weak colony. Some of the practices I use for winter preparation are 2x4 under rear of hive to allow drainage down the front and not on the cluster, R5 insulation under the outer cover to reduce condensation, candy board added at start of winter (December), insulate, tar paper and mite test board in place. Once again this is location dependant and I'm sure others will find other practices that work well for them. I completed a formic acid treatment in July and will possibly do another later in September (mite check). I have screened (eighth inch) entrance reducers to allow for treatment during wasp predation season (unusual low yellowjacket population this year but fairly strong bald faced hornet presence - picking off bees at hive entrance). We have the normal skunk scrapings at the hive entrances this year and a first for me, a pair of sparrows that spent most of the summer picking off bees at the hive entrances (feeding their young).
Food To address the food issue you will need about 10 deep frames or 15 medium frames of honey (65 lbs or 30 kgs) for an average sized colony to survive the winter. In our specific location (Strathcona) we still have a good availability of nectar and pollen with many different plant species still in flower in our 4 acre garden and the surrounding area. Due to global warming plants in Vancouver can begin to flower 2-3 weeks earlier than in the past so our forage shortage begins in mid September. The problem occurs when the temperatures are still warm enough from mid September through mid October for the colony to stay active. An active colony without a natural food source may consume much of the winter food supply. I'm fortunate this year to have a good supply of honey frames from my stronger hives that I can share with my weaker hives. If the food reserves are low it's a good time to feed syrup and pollen patties (September - October). You can feed during formic acid treatment by using a hive top feeder and adding the feed either before or when you add the formic pads. You cannot open the hive during the treatment period. This article "Feeding Bees in Winter" describes the different methods of feeding at different temperatures. The girls will take a 2 to 1 syrup down to about 12 celsius (53 fahrenheit) after which they find it too difficult to dehydrate for storage. Some beekeepers will feed syrup baggies on top of the frames in colder temperatures on the theory that heat from the cluster warms the syrup. I've not tried this. An issue with syrup feeding this time of year is making sure most of the syrup the bees store gets capped. The uncapped syrup will become a source of winter moisture and mold.
To address our main foraging shortage which occurs from mid September to mid October I have separated the root balls of common Asian Asters for planting and transplanted the invasive Canadian Goldenrod (Aster). When mature the common Asian Aster becomes a 1.5 by 1.5 metre (4 by 4 foot) bush with hundreds of flowers and can bloom well into October. We have a few hundred autumn flowering variety Asters in our 4 acre garden. Other late bloomers in our garden are Japanese Anemone, Mint, Autumn Joy Sedum, Scarlet Runner Bean, Calendula, Sunflower, Rudbeckia, Purple Coneflower, Jersulam Artichoke and the invasive Japanese Knotweed (Nectar Plants of British Columbia). A mixed diet is beneficial for the girls so some other late blooming plants are Caryopteris 'Dark Knight' (Blue Mist Spirea), Dahlia, Hardy Fushia, Seven Sons flower (Autumn Lilac), Impatiens omeianan, Camellia sinensis (Hardy tea bush) and Osmanthus fragrans (Fragrant Olive) (Nutritional Value of Bee Collected Pollens and Pollen Sources). I will avoid the temptation to plant the invasive late blooming ivy and Himalayan Balsam.
Goldenrod
Aster
It's good at this point to make sure you have your emergency winter
feeders ready if you plan to use them. A major cause of colony death is late winter starvation
(February - April) which can be solved by the use of an emergency
winter feeder like this one from Beverly Bees (Candy Board). During a prolonged cold spell bees may be unable to access honey on the other side of the box. A candy board directly above can be a lifesaver.
Candyboard
They're
easy to build with 1x4's and quarter or half inch wire mesh and can be a colony
lifesaver. You can quickly check on the feeders through the late
winter to gauge the status of the food supply (Feeding Bees in Winter).
In the Greater Vancouver area there are some differences in winter food requirements based on available foraging days
and available forage. Because of the effect of the North Shore
Mountains precipitation varies from 150+ inches (380 centimeters)
annually at the upper altitudes of the mountains to 30 inches (75
centimeters) along the U.S. border. This effect reduces precipitation
and increases hours of sunlight as you move southward. It can be sunny in the south and cloudy and rainy by the mountains. An obvious benefit to late and early season foraging. This is particularly beneficial in March and April when we have a lot of flowering plants available but marginal foraging weather. The graph below
divides Greater Vancouver into 9 zones with 9 being the upper altitudes
of the North Shore Mountains and 1 being the southern region along the
U.S. border (Greater Vancouver Precipitation). As the crow flies this is a distance of less than 30 kilometers or 20 miles.
Though
active at lower temperatures I have found high population foraging in
our apiary at 12 degrees celsius (53 fahrenheit) in March (Willow trees,
Forsythia, Flowering Cherry).
This
means more flyable, foraging weather the further south you live and the
more active the colony with the additional needed sunshine warming the
hive and bees. The activity of the bees is directly linked to the number of hours of sunlight
on the hives. For optimum colony health maximize the
sun exposure on your hives (South to southeast exposure with minimal
shade). We moved our apiary because it was surrounded by fast growing
Black Locust, Willow and Cottonwood trees (Great pollen and nectar
sources). Other than occasional bearding the hives didn't seem adversely affected by the extreme heat this summer (2021 - 40 celsius/ 100 fahrenheit). * Update: Unfortunately we had 3 times the normal rainfall this September followed by temperatures 3-4 degrees cooler than normal in October decreasing the available foraging time. Feeding may be essential for most. Check your winter food supply. Also effecting food availability and feeding in preparation for winter is whether you are in a rural
agricultural or urban setting. The rural, agricultural areas in Surrey,
Delta and the Fraser Valley tend to have extreme honey and brood
production during crop blossoms but can suffer in the off season while
the urban areas tend to have a more consistent food source availability
throughout the foraging period (March - November) due to urban
landscaping and irrigation.
The honey frames should be
positioned on both sides of the cluster in the bottom box and above the
cluster in the second super (super = hive box). If the cluster is in an
upper box it's recommended to switch the box to the bottom in
preparation for winter. In the spring you can reverse that process as
the girls will have worked their way up to upper part of the second box.
Winter cluster at the end of winter
For
a Kenyan Top Bar put the cluster at one end and the honey frames next
to the cluster. I've often run all deep supers in my Langstroth hives
because universal boxes and frames are easier to manage. I can add
honey frames from my third or fourth box to the brood boxes to over
winter. Many new beekeepers and some old are moving towards all medium
boxes because of the lighter weight. This makes sense as a deep box of
honey can weigh 80 lbs (36 kgs). All beekeepers have plus
and negative food accumulation months and generally April 1 to Oct 1 are
positive food accumulation months for us in Vancouver. March and October can be neutral but are usually negative depending on
the available foraging days (weather). November through February are
winter cluster, negative food accumulation months.
Pest and Disease Control Pest and disease identification and control should be an ongoing process and if you are beginning now it may be too late. Evidence of chalk brood or nosema would indicate a weak colony (Diseases). Increased ventilation and removal of old comb can be done to combat the chalk brood and a pollen patty/fumagillin mixture may help combat the nosema. European Foulbrood can be treated with Terramycin and a positive AFB confirmation means disposal of the hive and prevention of spread. Mite counts throughout the year and subsequent treatments should let you know whether you have a major issue. Mite treatments like formic acid can continue into October as long as there is a day time high temp of 10c and although oxalic acid was traditionally done in December when there is little to no brood present (it does not effect mites in the brood) it is now a year round treatment option. A mistake made by many beekeepers is to treat in August and with a large, healthy colony and assume everything is fine. Continue mite tests and treatment through September. If needed I will start my final formic acid treatment in the middle of September. A reduced screened entrance using eighth inch hardware cloth can be used to allow for needed ventilation during formic acid treatments while providing a more easily defended (against wasps) reduced entrance. I staple the eighth inch hardware cloth to the bottom board and first brood box. I find this a necessity as the yellowjacket wasps are very aggressive starting in August.
The video below "Getting Your Hives Ready for Winter" is a recorded webinar with Kim Flottum (Bee expert and editor of Bee Culture magazine) which does a very good job of discussing winter preparation for bee colonies focusing on year around mite control. Controlling mites goes a long way to controlling virus transmission and overall colony health.
Cold and Moisture The U.S. Bee Informed Survey of wintering hives (the only large scale North American winter survival survey) showed that only 3 conditions determined winter survival success and they were adequate food, strong colonies (equalization or combining hives) and ventilation (moisture reduction).
The survey is extensive and includes the results for geographic region, all types of pest and disease management, feeding and winter preparation. The Bee Informed Survey 2016 - 2017
Wrapping and insulation showed no benefit but I think that depends on where you live. If you live in cold northern climates like Winterpeg either you wrap and insulate or you bring the girls inside. 40 below is 40 below. While insulation is not traditionally necessary in Vancouver (we have a mild winter climate and rarely get much below freezing) I know some that do with good results. Insulation could be counter productive by keeping the heat out and preventing the hive from warming up by the sun (Sun in Vancouver in winter?). However, insulation under the outer cover is effective at minimizing the temperature difference and resulting condensation between the outside and inner hive (With half inch R5 insulation no moisture and mold, without both). Some local beekeepers wrap their hives with black roofing paper to prevent wind penetration and to help absorb the heat (Black objects absorb more heat). It may be helpful but an argument against this is that the girls take care of wind penetration with use of propolis and do we want a warmer hive in the winter? Warmer means more active bees and more food consumption. For us wrapping in March may be a good option as we have lots of blossoms (Willow, forsythia, flowering cherry, bulbs ...) but marginal foraging temperatures. Wrapping would warm the hives and get the girls flying earlier in the day increasing their pollen and nectar intake and stimulate egg laying. This winter with a prolonged forecast of -12 Celsius (10 Fahrenheit) I insulated and wrapped the hives. Over the 2 week period we had cold temps and high winds. Sunny and 6 Celsius (43 Fahrenheit) today I checked the hives and all were well and active with lots of cleansing flights (poop breaks) and house cleaning (removing dead bees). One particularly strong 8 frame cluster came to greet me in an unfriendly manner when I added the candy board.
Temperature difference on black and white surface
Wintering your bees is like real estate value in that the 3 most important
considerations are location, location and location. Location
dictates the methods you will use to protect your bees from the
elements. Windbreaks are essential in some areas where there are cold,
winter winds, especially for rooftop beekeepers. In winter Vancouver has a predominant, low pressure weather pattern with
winds from the southeast that bring with it fairly constant cool, wet weather. We usually have only a few snow falls per year and a few weeks of freezing temperatures. Therefore moisture, not cold is our biggest issue. The moisture is created when warm air created by the cluster of bees rises and contacts the cold inner cover creating cold condensation which drips onto the cluster. There are a lot of different methods to reduce moisture in the hive from dripping on the cluster like tilting the hive forward by putting a 2x4 under the back of the hive to allow the moisture to run down the front of the hive and not on the cluster and/or as mentioned above insulating under the outer cover. Another option is an Insulated Moisture Quilt placed above the hive boxes to reduce cold condensation dripping on the winter cluster.
The bee hive in winter without any form of moisture reduction
Insulated Moisture Quilt
The heat produced by the cluster rises to contact the warmer insulated cover producing less condensation, which then drips onto the wood chips (not the bees) which are dried by the vent holes. They are easy to make out of scrap material (or an old hive box) and the link above provides detailed building instructions.
During winter you must have an upper entrance in your Langstroth hive for ventilation and because dead bees or snow can block the lower entrance. For moisture reduction in a Kenyan Top Bar Hive beekeepers can use an insulated moisture quilt, carpet over the top bars (Bill Stagg's method) or reflective insulation (Sam Comfort's method). Although I know some who don't I enclose the bottom of the hive with the test board because we can get periods of cold weather (-10 Celsius,14 fahrenheit) and strong winds. In Vancouver we usually get at least 2 major storms a year of 80+ km winds (50 miles per hr). For this reason and the presence of skunks and racoons we use cinder blocks (ratchet straps are another option) on our hives to prevent the outer cover from blowing off or being removed and have positioned the hives to have a natural wind break (berm to the south). A wind break is particularly important for roof top beekeepers. Years back I was asked to check on some roof top hives as the beekeeper had moved and found all the outer covers blown off and the bees dead. Though not necessary some use pieces of plexiglass extending 4+ inches over the outer covers to provide additional weather protection and extend the life of our beekeeping equipment.
Winter Hive
Wasps With the decrease in available forage robbing and
wasp attacks become a real concern starting in August so guard bees will become more
defensive and in the wild the colony may reduce the size of the entrance
with propolis and wax. The beekeeper can assist by reducing the
entrance to as small as 1.5 centimeters or a half inch to make it easier
to defend (weaker colonies). With stronger colonies I shift the entrance reducer to the 4 inch opening. In Vancouver wasps have been more aggressive, longer into the winter over the last few years. I received a swarm call recently in December. There had been a few hard frosts so out of interest (knowing it wasn't a swarm) I went to see a very active paper yellowjacket nest in an unheated crawl space. The Yellowjacket wasps
and to a lesser degree Bald Faced Hornets are usually aggressive in our apiary starting in August, attempting to
enter hives and picking off stray bees at the entrance. This year I used eigth inch cloth as an entrance reducer to allow for mite treatment. This blocks potential wasp intrusion and robbing
by other
bees
if you are feeding and still allows ventilation. The girls are better able
to defend the reduced single entrance. Wasps will stay active at cooler temperatures than your bees so when the girls are in cluster the wasps may enter the hive. I don't indiscriminately kill
wasps (I've identified 9 different types in our garden including a parasitic wasp in my blue mason and leaf cutter bee cocoons) but have found them
increasingly aggressive towards our colonies for a longer period of time
in the fall (last year until December). Every year I am asked to remove problem nests in our community garden. These are either ground yellow jackets or bald faced hornets paper nests usually in bramble thickets. I've found the pheremone lure variety wasp trap to
be very effective on our greatest threat which are the common Yellowjacket wasps (does not attract Bald Faced Hornets). This lure trap can also be used in the spring to kill the emerging wasp queens. The Rescue brand lure variety works well but the bait only lasts for about 7 days so can be expensive. I found topping the trap up with hose water invigorates the sent of the lure and effectiveness. For those who might think I'm removing a natural element of our ecosystem I'm not very successful as I do it every year.
Wasp trap
You can also make your own wasp trap. Here is a
study from the University of Athens showing the effectiveness of 3
different types of traps (Wasp Traps). Maybe the easiest and most popular is the pop bottle trap. We have a number of these out now with a 50/50 mixture of sugar and water and a capfull of vinegar poured in the entrance to keep the bees away. They have worked well but you need to add a capfull of vinegar occasionally to dissuade the bees. Here is a study from the University of California
on the effectiveness of different baits (Baits for the Control of Yellowjackets). I've not had much success with fish or meat baits later in the summer. These protein baits are successful earlier in the season when the wasps are feeding their brood. Wasps prefer a sugar and water bait at this time of year. For more information on wasps go to the Wasp section of our Beekeeping Library.
If wasp attacks or robbing persists and they gain access to your hive you can use a robber screen which are easy to make.
Due to the homeless camp next to our hives last year we had a noticeable increase in our ground tunneling rat population this year which I believe resulted in a decrease in ground nesting yellowjacket wasps. Charles Darwin and his children studied ground nesting bumble bees and found that the population of bumble bees was dependant on old maids who kept cats who killed the rats allowing for greater bumble bee ground nesting success. We don't have any cats though this summer a pair of Sharp-shinned hawks moved in to help with the over population of rats.
Equalization, Combining Colonies or Requeening It is recommended that new beekeepers have
2 hives rather than 1 because inevitably one will be stronger than the other. This allows you to strengthen the weaker hive with bees from the
stronger colony (Equalization of Bee Colonies Strength by Khalil Hamdan) or to split the stronger hive if you lose the weaker colony. Though this can be done in the spring it can also be done in preparation for winter by adding 2-3 frames
of bees and brood as needed. However, if you have a weak colony it's likely you have a sick colony or weak queen which would suggest treatment and/or requeening. Adding frames of bees to a weak colony now won't make it a strong colony just a more populated weak colony. You can also combine the weaker colony with a stronger one using the newspaper method (Uniting Honey Bees by David Cushman).
The newspaper method of combining hives
In October most beekeepers reduce their Langstroth hives to 2 deep supers (3 mediums) and Kenyan Top Bar hives are reduced by moving your follower board or your false backs forward (Winterizing your Top Bar Hive). Queen excluders should be removed so the queen can move with the cluster as it moves upward
Mice Though still mild it's time to think of mice which like to winter
in the hives. There are a hundred different varieties of mouse proof
entrances from quarter inch screened mesh, drilled metal sheet to simple
nails minimizing the entrance. The mice can get through a fairly small area and will chew through wood. I use a simple wood entrance reducer with a nail reducing the entrance to just over the width of a bee. This allows for the removal of dead bees which the girls do as part of winter house cleaning. If you find the mice chewing on the entrance reducer you can wrap it in wire mesh. Here is an easy step by step guide to making a mouse guard from Brooksfield Farm just south of us near Mt. Baker.
Beekeeping in Northern Climates This beekeeping manual accompanies an
online course from the University of Minnesota Bee Lab. "Interested in becoming a beekeeper? Dr. Marla Spivak, Dr. Katie Lee
and Gary Reuter from the University of Minnesota Bee Lab will help you get
started in beekeeping. If you have no prior experience keeping bees in our
cold climate, Beekeeping in Northern Climates will teach you everything you
need to know. The course modules cover honey bee biology, management,
successful wintering of colonies, managing diseases and pests and so much
more. If your goal is to keep your bees alive and healthy year after year,
this engaging course is for you. This online class is over 12 hours of
recorded instruction divided into modules. You will be able to work through
the course material in modules entirely at your own pace and schedule. There
are optional live Q&A sessions with the Bee Squad that you can choose to
attend on the first Tuesday of each month at 6pm CT. There is also ample
opportunity to ask questions in the discussion forums. You will have access to
the materials for two years to allow you to review any module over two
beekeeping seasons. Two manuals accompany the class: Beekeeping in Northern
Climates and
Honey Bee Diseases and Pests. The manuals can be downloaded for free either in the course itself or from
our manual page.
If you wish to donate see our
Giving page."
A worthy cause to support. To register for the course. The
Beekeeping in Northern Climates video series
is also very useful.
Backyard Beekeeping(James E. Tew) This book by Dr. James Tew is a good overview of
the basic steps to acquiring and management of a bee colony for the
beginner beekeeper. Some of the things that are covered are the
cost, races of honey bees, bee life cycle, hive design, equipment,
swarms, hive site, seasonal management, pesticides, diseases and
harvesting of honey and wax. "Nearly anyone can keep a hive or two of honey bees. The majority of
beekeepers are hobbyists, who keep bees just for pleasure. Men, women, teens,
or young children, to some extent, can all be beekeepers. Gardeners,
retirees, professionals, teachers, physicians, construction workers, airline
pilots, and lawyers are among the types of diversified occupations enjoying
beekeeping. A sideline beekeeping hobby can earn extra income if colonies are
managed efficiently. Even if you do not have a place to put a few colonies,
most people can find a friendly farmer or landowner on whose land to place
colonies. If you enjoy biology, outdoor activities, woodworking, gardening,
animal care, or if you are just looking for a sideline income, beekeeping will
probably interest you."
Beekeeping Basics This Penn State University publication provides a fairly
comprehensive and detailed book for the backyard beekeeper. "This manual is all about beekeeping—understanding honey bee biology,
getting started, managing bee colonies for fun and/or profit and is designed to help you become a successful beekeeper. Welcome to the world of beekeeping." It covers topics like bee
castes, beekeeping equipment, clothing, packages and nucs, apiary
location, seasonal management, diseases and pests, honey production
and processing, rendering bees wax and pollen trapping ... A very good resource for the beginning beekeeper. "This manual is all about beekeeping—understanding honey bee biology, getting
started, managing bee colonies for fun and/or profit—and is designed to help
you become a successful beekeeper. Welcome to the world of beekeeping."
Handbook on Beekeeping: (Europe) A good, complete guide to sustainable beekeeping from
the European Union Bees project. "BEES is a Transfer of Innovation
project aiming at further developing a module from the Leonardo da Vinci
ENSA project on organic and biodynamic agriculture education. The main
objective of the project is to create completely updated teaching
materials on bee behaviours and relevant importance as indicators of
agriculture sustainability. Biodiversity is directly linked to this
approach. The main targets of the handbook are farmers' associations,
environmental associations, agriculture professional schools,
agriculture and veterinary medicine universities, bee keepers
associations, policy makers, institutions at European, national and
local level, elementary and secondary schools."
Australian Beekeeping Guide A great beginner's guide to beekeeping from the
Australian government. It covers everything from bee castes
and life-cycle to seasonal management, diseases and pests. "This
book provides basic information to assist beginner and sideline
beekeepers. It draws on the knowledge and experience of apiculture
scientists, various state and territory apiary inspectors and apiary
officers, and most importantly, the many beekeepers who enjoy keeping
bees." It covers most everything except treatment of varroa mites
which are not present in Australia.
Every beekeeper should seek to have hives that are healthy and
productive. Today, the many threats to honey bee health — including
parasites, pests, disease, pesticides, and inadequate nutrition —
make achieving this goal a major challenge. Successful beekeeping
means closely monitoring bee health and taking proactive steps to
protect them.
Over the years, a wide range of public and
private organizations have developed Best Management Practices
(BMPs) for the honey bee industry. Important work has been done by
state governments, crop and grower organizations, universities
(particularly extension services), state beekeeping organizations
and other stakeholders. This guide collects BMPs from many sources
into one document to make it easy for beekeepers to find practical
information that they can use. Experts from within and outside the
Honey Bee Health Coalition, including entomologists, small-scale and
commercial beekeepers, apiary inspectors and commercial bee
suppliers, have reviewed the BMPs in this guide to make sure that
they are accurate and consistent with the latest research findings.
Whether you are just starting out as a beekeeper or have years of
experience, you’ll find that this guide offers valuable BMPs on many
topics, including:
Written by Eric Mader, Pollinator Outreach Coordinator,
The Xerces Society Pollinator Conservation Program.
Marla Spivak, Professor of Entomology, University of Minnesota and
Elaine Evans, Author of Befriending Bumble Bees.
"This book cound not have come at a better time. We
stand at a crossroads, where honey bee losses and
rental rates for pollination are on the rise, research is
expanding our knowledge of native bees’ role in crop
pollination, and growers are looking for pollination
alternatives to improve crop security. Herein lies the
heart of this book: It is a technical resource that brings
together the latest advances in native and introduced
bee management with a big-picture perspective on
how to manage a farm for these pollinators’ greatest
success. In the coming years, honey bees will continue to
be critically important for production agriculture. To
improve the sustainability and security of farming in
the United States, however, it is important for grow-
ers to diversify the pollinators upon which they rely. It
also might be time for beekeepers to diversify their own operations and
expand their management to native bees. This book provides the necessary
tools for growers, beekeepers, and other agricultural professionals to
do just that. Perhaps the silver lining of Colony Collapse Disorder is
its wake-up call to invest time, research, and energy into new managed
pollinators and new ways of looking at farm management for the
betterment of all pollinators. We are being asked to picture a future in
agriculture where even the most intensively managed almond orchards,
cranberry bogs, and squash fields make room for flowering plants that
complement blooming crops and have strategically placed hives of honey
bees, tubes of leafcutters, boxes of bumble bees, and natural habitat
that provides a home for wild native bees."
"This book is as much a guide to sources of additional information as
it is a how to beekeeping guide. There is a lot of bee related
information available and I have compiled an impressive list of
sources of additional information from an Irish centric
perspective. Why did I write this eBook? The need for this book
came to me when I searched for as simple and straightforward text on
how to start beekeeping in Ireland. I was restarting my
beekeeping here in 2015. I wanted a plain and straight to the
point book which was up to date and appropriate in the Irish context.
I wanted a book at a sensible price which was available in electronic
format (an eBook) which I could easily and quickly download and start
reading. I could not find or easily access a suitable
publication to assist me and therefore decided to write the book my
self to assist others who may be trying to start beekeeping... I
have spent over two years researching and writing this eBook. I hope
that you find it useful and helpful. I would be delighted to
hear from you and to get your feedback." Tom Carroll PHD,
Killenure Nursery, Ballybrittas, Co Laois. Website - Apiconsult
Beekeeping in California "This publication describes the fundamentals of keeping
bees in California (1987) and discusses the differences between
commercial and non commercial approaches. Persons considering
keeping bees can learn through self education and experience. Classes
and short courses in beekeeping are also helpful, and many good books
and other literature are available (see References). However, no amount
of reading can substitute for actual experience with colonies. Local
beekeeping clubs often willingly share information, and many will show
beginners how to manage a colony and what to expect through the
year."
Canadian Best Management Practices for Honey Bee Health
(Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) - "Best Management
Practices (BMPs) for the honey bee industry are developed by
different levels and divisions of government, various organizations, institutions and
stakeholders. Content ranging from regulations for pest and
disease treatment thresholds to management of colonies during
pollination services are included. While in many cases these
recommendations are readily available, their authors are varied
and the publications are provided by diverse sources. Some recommendations will apply to the Canadian nation as a whole, while
others will only relate to specific areas of the country. The BMPs discussed in this document
refer to those that pertain to honey bee health. Traceability
aspects like food safety, beekeeper safety and
environmental safety are not included within this BMP
document."
4 H Beekeeping Manuals The 4-H Beekeeping Project from Purdue
University is divided into three divisions.
Division I, Understanding the Honey Bee, covers
information on the basic facts of beekeeping: the types of bees, the
honey and wax they produce, the plants that attract bees, and the
equipment a beekeeper needs. In the first year, youth are not required
to have any bees, but prepare to take care of a honey bee colony of
their own. In Division II, Working with Honey Bees, youth acquire a colony of bees and learn
how to care for their beehive throughout the year. This will include
basic beekeeping operations that result in the production of
extracted, chunk, or cut comb honey. When the youth are experienced
and knowledgeable in the basic care of a beehive, they should move on
to Division III, Advanced Beekeeping Methods. The advanced topics include:
increasing the number of your honey bee colonies, increasing honey
production, producing special kinds of honey, learning more about the
bee societies, and how to manage honey bee diseases and parasites.
This is a good resource for beginning beekeepers of all
ages. In addition here is a
4H Basic Beekeeping Manual
from Malcolm Sanford (University of Florida) and from the Virginia
Cooperative Extension
4H Honey Bee Youth Project Book 1
and
2
.
4 H Beekeeping Manual A good beginner beekeeper manual written by Brian Rowe of the 4
H organization that covers everything from hive components, types of
bees, first year and seasonal management, honey, wax and diseases and
pests. "Welcome to beekeeping. I hope you enjoy it as much
as I have. The bees have been good to me, and I hope they will do
the same for you." Brian Rowe.
The Basics of Beekeeping (Scotland) This is a good introductory Beekeeping guide
written by M.M. Peterson on behalf of the Dunblane and Stirling
Districts Beekeepers' Association in Scotland. The topics
discussed include bee biology, beekeeping equipment, handling bees,
swarm control, diseases and pests and
harvesting.
At the Hive Entrance This useful German handbook written by Prof. Storch in 1985 (pre
varroa) explains the value of being able to calculate a hive health by
observing the outside of the hive. "All year round it is through
this little opening that the life of a colony pulses. Here it breathes
and rejects all that it will not tolerate in its domain. Here it
transmits its meaningful message for the person who can understand it.
Here the colony's behaviour informs the beekeeper of its problems and
state of health, and lets him know whether it needs his help. A keeper
who can tell the condition of his bees by observing the hive entrance
does not need to open his hives and disturb the bees' sanctuary, the
brood nest. This never produces good results. A healthy colony
must have peace if it is to perform its productive role. On principle a
visit should only be made once the keeper has determined at the hive
entrance that something is not in order. It is not always easy to know
what is happening inside the hive by observing the hive entrance and
this is only learnt after many years, especially when the keeper is
alone and there is no-one to give advice.
Beekeeping in the United States This beekeeping handbook from the U.S. Department of Agriculture
provides readers with a better understanding of beekeeping in the United
States from a l980 perspective (pre Varroa). Some topics discussed are
the life history of the honey bee; bee behavior; breeding and genetics
of honey bees; queens, packaged bees, and nuclei; managing colonies for
high honey yield and crop pollination; dis- eases and pests of honey
bees; and effects of pesticides on honey bee mortality. The handbook
also lists beekeeping organizations and some statistics on bees and
honey. Martin, E. C, E. Oertel, N. P. Nye, and others. 1980. Beekeeping
in the United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture
Handbook.
Basic Beekeeping Manual
(Africa) This is a 2 volume publication written by Pam Gregory
with assistance of Gay Marris of the U.K. National Bee Unit (FERA) that
concentrates on top bar hive beekeeping, but many of the techniques and
ideas can also be used by traditional and frame hive beekeepers.
"This field manual is designed for use by field-based trainers in
sub Saharan Africa. It is based on colour pictures with few words. The
manual covers basic techniques needed to start a beekeeping business. It
also offers some new ideas to help beekeepers to become independent by
making their own equipment from local materials. I hope that this will
help people to start beekeeping at an affordable cost, and maybe to
experiment with new materials. The pictures show some of the many
different ways that people keep bees. This is intended to promote
discussion and shared experiences to help people to solve problems
locally. The manual concentrates on top bar hive beekeeping but many of
the techniques and ideas can also be used by traditional and frame hive
beekeepers." The
Advanced Beekeeping Manual
covers more advanced management techniques and problem solving and
offers some ideas about how to tackle them. The
Swahili language version
of this manual.
"This book was written to assist beekeepers in Kenya and other
African countries improve their beekeeping. It is written in
simple language and is intended to be as practical as possible." Thomas
Carroll. Reader's feedback on the guide. “It is a wonderful and easily understandable introduction to
beekeeping with all the important tips and advice……….it is by far the
most informative book (about Kenyan beekeeping)”. From the
Organic Farmer Magazine, Nairobi,
“Congratulations for your Beekeeping Guide that is very interesting,
complete and useful not only for the Scutellata beekeepers but for
the Adansonii ones in Central and West Africa where the problems are
similar”.
Tropical and Sub-tropical Apiculture
The book brings out the enormous untapped potential for the
development of a dynamic apiculture industry in the developing
countries. Most countries in these regions are blessed with abundant
sunshine, and a rich flora which blooms all the year round. An
integrated consideration of the problems and potential of the apiculture
industry in the tropics and sub- tropics will therefore help in
identifying the constraints responsible for the gap between potential
and actual honey production. At the same time, it will help to monitor
and regulate the movement ofbees and associated pathogens from temperate
into tropical areas, where beekeeping is especially vulnerable to
setbacks caused by new diseases. We urgently need a mechanism for
disease monitoring, and for organizing an early warning system with
reference to the spread of new pests and pathogens. Information on
marketing opportunities will also be necessary for countries that are
substantially increasing their apicultural production. Much of
this book has been written by scientists who are authorities in their
respective fields. The book, therefore, serves as an encyclopedia of
information relating to the various aspects of apiculture.
The National Beekeeping Training Extension Manual (Uganda) This beekeeping training guide produced by the
Ugandan Ministry of Agriculture is a manual that others in tropical and
subtropical areas may find useful. "Over the years, several
stakeholders including Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies
have been carrying out training of farmers in their own ways without
standard guide and uniformity. Some of the guides/manuals used by
the stakeholders are substandard. This practice has for long undermined
efforts to increase production and enforce compliance to standards.
This manual has therefore been developed to provide the basic
standards for training beekeepers all over Uganda."
This practical guide to Beekeeping in Africa is one volume in the
programme of publications on apiculture in the Third World initiated early
in 1986 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
Previous volumes include Tropical and sub-tropical apiculture; Honeybee
mites and their control: A selected annotated bibliography; Honey and
beeswax control; Beekeeping in Asia, Honeybee diseases and enemies In
Asia: A practical guide; and Beekeeping in Latin America. It is hoped that
other topical works will follow. The present practical guide was
written by Mr. Stephen O. Adjare, Research Fellow in charge of the
Apiculture Promotion Unit of the Technology Consultancy Centre, University
of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. While it draws on a wealth of
information based on the experience of beekeepers around the world, and
especially in the United States, it focuses on those problems,
opportunities and resources which are peculiar to Africa. It stresses the
potential that beekeeping offers to agriculture, rural development,
nutrition and income generation in the continent, and the ways in which
individual, small-scale and commercial beekeepers can improve the
productivity of their hives. The use of local technology and materials, as
well as the particular characteristics of the African honeybee, are
treated in detail.
Apiculture in Sub-Saharan Africa
(A manual for trainers) This manual focuses on modern beekeeping
in Sub-Saharan Africa. It attempts to upgrade and refine the
knowledge of trainers/field workers within government departments or
organizations/NGOs on the correct use of modern beekeeping techniques.
The final aim is that competent services will be provided to
farmers/beekeepers and appropriate transfer of know-how will be
accomplished to the same. It is hoped that this will contribute to the
creation of a new generation of beekeepers in the Region.
Small Scale Beekeeping
(The Peace Corps) As part of the United States “whole of government”
effrt to address food security in the developing world, the Peace
Corps has edited and revised several existing technical manuals designed
for use by Volunteers. Most of these materials were created in the late
1970s and early 1980s and were written by a number of diffrent
subject-matter experts employed or contracted by the Peace Corps. They
have been revised with funding provided to the Peace Corps by the U.S.
Agency for International Development’s (USAID) Bureau of Food Security
under a food security agreement, known as “Feed the Future.” The
Small-Scale Beekeeping manual is written as a guide for Volunteers who
are getting started with small-scale beekeeping projects. The intention
is to provide an overview of beekeeping and its possibilities as a tool
for development. The manual focuses on “intermediate levels” of
beekeeping that can be self-sustaining, using only local
resources.
A Manual for Trainers of Small-Scale Beekeeping Development
Workers
(The Peace Corps) A Manual for Trainers of Small-scale Beekeeping
Development Workers [T0029] is useful for Volunteers and staff for
training purposes. The content is adaptable to pre-service and inservice
training events. It is also valuable to Volunteers interested in
training community members. The training is designed to help
participants develop the skills they will need to work and live as
beekeeping extensionists. The emphasis of this training is on
equipping future Volunteers, counterparts, and community members with
the skills necessary to promote appropriate beekeeping development. This
is a creative process that requires individuals to take an active role
in identifying their own needs and finding appropriate and sustainable
ways to meet them. The sessions outlined in this manual cover a range of
skills needed to establish beekeeping projects. The approach to training
used in this manual is based on the principles of non formal education
and is designed to strike a balance between structured learning and
independent discovery. By using the sessions, resources, and methods
outlined here, participants will develop a working knowledge of
beekeeping, as well as skills for applying that knowledge in a
meaningful way.
Beekeeping Training for Farmers in the Hymalayas This manual produced by the
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
covers the full range of basic topics related to beekeeping development,
including the importance of beekeeping in modern agriculture and the use
of bees for crop pollination; production of honey, wax and other hive
products; honey quality standards; and using value chain and market
management to increase the benefits accruing to beekeepers. The focus is
on participatory hands-on training, with issues explained in simple
language with many illustrations. The manual was prepared to meet formal
training needs in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and
Nepal, but it is suitable for use in ICIMOD's other member
countries as well - Afghanistan, China, Myanmar,
and Pakistan.
Beekeeping in Asia
by Pongthep Akratanakul (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations) - "In a continent as vast as Asia, differences in
climate, levels of agricultural development, and bee races are so
variable that no one book can cover all beekeeping situations. The
author of this study draws heavily on his experiences with European
honeybees introduced into northern Thailand, but he also discusses the
principal features of beekeeping activities in the other zonal and
socio-cultural contexts in Asia at different stages of development.
Both the experienced beekeeper and the novice will find a mine of
useful information, guidance and suggestions in the publication and it
is for this reason that FAO hopes that it will be a useful contribution
to the economic development of the most populous continent in the
world."
Bees and their Role in Forest Livelihoods
by Nicola Bradbear (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations) - "The role of bees in sustaining forests and forest dependent
livelihoods remains poorly known and appreciated. Bees are a fantastic
world resource: they are essential for sustaining our environment
because they pollinate flowering plants. Bees sustain our agriculture by
pollinating crops and thereby increasing yields of seeds and fruits.
Today, apiculture plays a valuable part in rural livelihoods
worldwide, and this book aims to provide an insight into the many ways
in which bees and beekeeping contribute to these livelihoods, and how to
strengthen this contribution. While the rationale for the sustainable
use of tree resources is widely appreciated, by contrast the sustainable
use of bee resources is poorly promoted and appreciated. Rural people in
every developing country are keeping bees or harvesting from them in one
way or another. This book aims to help ensure that these people
gain the most from these activities."
A Beekeeping Guide - A good beginners guide written by Harlan Attfield of
VITA for
beekeeping in the tropics and subtropics. "This guide provides an
overview of beekeeping in the tropics and subtropics. It
explains hive management techniques and offers insight into the life of
the common honey bee, Apis Mellifera and the Asian Honey Bee, Apis
Cerana. There are many races of these two honey bees and they
often require very specific techniques and equipment to hive them
successfully."
Beekeeping in the Tropics - A beginners beekeeping guide written by P. Segeren and
published by
Agrodok. "You can keep bees as an interesting hobby, or as a main or an
extra source of income. This booklet mainly provides information
on how to work with honey-bees that nest in cavities. In most of the
world regions this will be the European bee Apis mellifera, but in large
parts of (sub)tropical Asia the quite similar species A.cerana is mainly
used. Although the composition of a honey-bee colony is basically the
same all over the world, the management of bees must be adapted to the
species and race, the climate and the vegetation."
Beekeeping in India
Beekeeping has been practiced in Indian since time
immemorial. The earliest mention of it is in the Vedas and the
Ramayana. Success in beekeeping is largely a question of the
proper understanding of the biology and behaviour of the honey bees and
their proper management including knowledge of their diseases and
enemies and the latest equipment for handling them. This book is
intended to serve as a handy reference and guide for students of
agriculture, extension workers and all those who are interested in
beekeeping either as a hobby or profession.
Honeybees and Their Management in India
by R.C. Mishra (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) - "The
beekeeping practices for domesticated Indian honeybee, Apis cerana
indica F. were adopted from the west with suitable modifications suiting
to Indian honeybee. There is need to undertake intensive research for
therefinement of management practices for improved honey yield and
efficient pollination of crops. Production of other valuable hive
products like royal jelly, beeswax and bee venom needs
commercialization. There is a great diversity in regional agroclimatic
conditions and flora. Therefore, for taking up beekeeping, there is a
need to carry out some careful studies to explore the potential of each
area. This is an attempt to present a world-wide picture of
beekeeping, suitable for practical and class-room reference. The book is
mainly focussed on Indian literature, though the contents also draw from
the knowledge accumulated in more advanced countries. It is a
comprehensive account on different aspects of beekeeping, and students,
teachers and scientists will profit by studying it. I am sure, the book
will generate awareness and catalyse action towards a more effective
exploitation of honeybees for honey and other bee products as also for
crop production through bee pollination."
This is a beginners beekeeping guide to beekeeping in the Central Western
Ghats part of India which includes the keeping of Apis
Cerana, Apis Florea, Apis Dorsata and the stingless Trigona.
"Beekeeping is a forest and agro-based industry, which is beyond the
ordinary realms of industry,in the sense that the humans derive benefits
from interaction between two living things like plants and bees without
affecting adversely both. On the contrary plants, including many
crops,prosper with the abundance of bees (as pollinating agents) and the
bees, sheltered both by nature and humans provide mainly honey and other
by-products like beeswax, bee-pollen, propolis and royal jelly.
Bee-keeping, systematically adopted as a supplement to farming, can bring
prosperity to the villages of Uttara Kannada, a district endowed with
species rich forests and cultivation of a high diversity crops. Unlike
intensive farming or fishing that can corrode the natural resource base,
abundance of honey bees in a natural environment benefits both crops and
wild plants."
"Beekeeping has been a traditional household activity in Sikkim for
centuries. Rural communities
throughout the state have adopted this activity as substantial part of
their sustainable livelihoods. In
addition to providing income and honey, beekeeping supports other
products and services such as
wax, pollen, medicine and, of particular importance, pollination. The
entire state of Sikkim represents an ideal situation to develop beekeeping as an important
component of integrated
development and sustainable livelihoods. The various bio physical
conditions, such as varied
natural heritage of rural communities make it an ideal activity for
enterprise development. This beekeeping handbook has been compiled from various sources to provides
a tool to farmers,
governments, NGOs, universities, vocational training institutes, private
sector organizations and individual beekeepers in the North Eastern Region to initiate and
manage beekeeping activities, as well as facilitate the training of other farmers. It includes a wealth
of information on a full range of topics related to beekeeping development. I am confident that the
handbook will be one of the important resource materials for beekeeping development in Sikkim." Dr.
Peter Gross
Rafter BeekeepingSustainable management with Apis Dorsata training
manual. The following document is intended to serve as a training manual and has
been developed on the basis of related literature and the personal
observations of the author. It aims to provide the essential requirements
for the implementation of rafter beekeeping and presents guidelines for
rafter construction and management as a means of sustainable harvesting.
Nevertheless, it should not be considered as a substitute for practical
training by an experienced rafter beekeeper, at least in the first stages
of implementation. As is the case for any beekeeping activity, experience
is a key factor for success. Eric Guerin, Beekeeping consultant
Eric.guerin68@gmail.com
The Ancestral Domain and Natural Resource Management in Sagada, Mountain
Province, Northern Philippines is an action research program of the
Cordillera Studies Center, University of the Philippines College
Baguio. In line with the Program’s objective “to test sustainable
and equitable community-based natural resource management systems,”
beekeeping was introduced to the
community. Today, there is a cooperative of beekeepers in Sagada that
seeks to encourage individuals to take up beekeeping. This Kit
covers the following aspects of beekeeping, including discussions
particular to Cordillera conditions, in four sections, as follows:
Section 1: An Introduction to Beekeeping
Section 2: The Bee Farm
Section 3: Operation and Maintenance of the Bee Farm
Section 4: Pests and Diseases of Honeybees
Beekeeper's Manual (Belize) - Management and Caring of Africanized Bees for the
Production of Honey In the Vaca Forest Reserve in Belize.
The primary aim of this Beekeeper’s Manual is to provide
information to beekeepers on the integrated management of Africanized
Bees. The manual describes the basic management of beekeeping from the
formation of a new nucleus to the extraction and marketing of honey.
Beekeepers in Belize should not only think that the only product
in beekeeping ishoney. Pollen, propolis, wax, royal jelly and venom, the
queen, the beehives and the apicultural materials are other products
that capture a good market price. This manual takes into
consideration climatic changes experienced over the past 5 years and the
response of bees to this factor.
is respectfully submitted by the Author, to the candid consideration of those
who are interested in the culture of the most useful as well as wonderful
Insect,in all the range of Animated Nature. The information which it
contains will be found to be greatly in advance of anything which has yet
been presented to the English Reader; and, as far as facilities
for practical management are concerned, it is believed to be a very
material advance over anything which has hitherto been communicated to the
Apiarian Public. Debarred, by the state of his health, from the more
appropriate duties of his Office, and compelled to seek an employment which
would call him, as much as possible, into the open air, the Author indulges
the hope that the result of his studies and observations, in an important
branch of Natural History, will be found of service to the Community as well
as to himself. The satisfaction which he has taken in his researches has been
such that he has felt exceedingly desirous of interesting others, in a pursuit
which, (without any reference to its pecuniary profits,) is capable of
exciting the delight and enthusiasm of all intelligent observers.
The Travelling Beehive - Children's - "The Travelling Beehive" is an amazing book for children of all
ages. I highly recommend it for every beekeeper, their children and
grandchildren. This book is wonderfully written by Elena Garcia and
Manuel Angel Rosado and beautifully illustrated by
Juan Hernaz (Picture books by Juan Hernaz). It is published by Apolo which is an organization dedicated to the
preservation of pollinators and their habitat. You can follow Polli the
honey bee and her friend Dipter the hover fly as they face the challenges of a
disappearing green space. They are joined in their struggle by Bazumba the
wild bee, Missus Bombus the bumblebee, Lepi the butterfly, her majesty the
queen, Dorian the farmer and Ramon the beekeeper. Sit back and enjoy the The
Travelling Beehive .
A Web-Based Introductory Beekeeping Training Program This online beekeeping program from the Ohio State Beekeepers'
Association consists of 34 videos and 3 powerpoints and is made to accompany
the book "Backyard Beekeeping" (above). Some of the video segments
include assembling your hive and frames, branding, lighting a smoker,
seasonal management, cross combing, evaluating a queen, package bees,
swarms, laying workers, diseases and pests, moving hives, feeders and
overwintering your colonies. This combination of information is a
great starting point for the beginning beekeeper.
Honey Bees and Beekeeping: A Year in the Life of an Apiary This is a very useful 7 part, 25 video beekeeper series presented by
Dr. Keith Delaplane of the University of Georgia and covers a wide range of
topics like assembly and placement of hives, installing bees, bee biology,
diseases and pests, seasonal management, harvesting and overwintering.
It was created in l993 so does not include treatment for newer issues like
Small Hive Beetle or Africanized bees.
The University of Guelph Honey Bee Research Centre's online
beekeeping series is a great collection of 50 videos that cover beginner topics like
hive location and setup, hive equipment, protective clothing, smoke use,
stinging, comb building, inspections, colony management, pests and
diseases to more advanced topics like making nucs, queen rearing and
indoor overwintering. The University of Guelph is in the city of
Guelph, Ontario, Canada so although much of the information is universal
it is written from a northern perspective. You can access all of the
videos from this University of Guelph Honey Bee Research Centre's video list.
Beekeeping in Northern Climate Video Series from the University of Minnesota. This is a very useful
collection of videos particularly for the northern, cold weather
beekeeper. "The following videos were produced by the University of
Minnesota’s Department of Entomology Bee Lab and UMN Extension. Starring
lead UMN Bee Lab apiculture technician, Gary Reuter, they are intended to
be instructive and entertaining vignettes on a variety of beekeeping
topics. Each video covers a single topic, and you do not have to watch
them in any special order. In their entirety, they are a lesson on how to
keep bees in cold climates such as Minnesota. Videos produced by Deacon
Warner: dwarner@myfilmnorth.org"
Stewart Spinks of the Norfolk Honey Company in the UK has produced and is continuing to produce an exhaustive
series of over 200 videos that cover pretty much every topic you may
encounter from your initial setup (hive construction, painting, installing
bees, inspecting, diseases and parasites.....) to catching swarms, shook
swarms, queen rearing, overwintering, poly hives etc... "Here you
will find resources to help you get started in beekeeping, learn the basic
essentials for a successful first year. Gain help and advice to take you
through into your second year and beyond." You can access all of the
videos from the Norfolk Honey Company youtube channel.
Hiveworld
out of Edmonton, Alberta, Canada offers a large library of instructive
videos based on season. "We've arranged our video gallery by seasons because we think that's the
most logical way to do it! But note that our most recent Meet the Beekeeper
sessions get their own section because they're so popular. Pretty well
all of the YouTube videos we've produced can be viewed here. Tip: Once
you've started running a video you can make it go full-screen by either
clicking the four square corners icon in the bottom right corner of the
video box, or pressing 'F' on your keyboard. Use the same controls to shrink
it back down when done. We always get asked by new beekeepers, "Why do
I need to split my hive?" Here Barry talks about why you need to do a split
and few other options for those who don't want to make a split..."
Free Online Beekeeping Course "Honey Bees and Colony Strength Evaluation"
(You can log in as a guest) Recommended for beekeepers, inspectors
and farmers hiring bee pollinators. This online course from the
University of California is useful for all beekeepers from the beginner to
the professional. "The objective in developing this course was to
provide easily accessible information to improve the understanding of
basic honey bee biology, recommended colony strength evaluation practices,
and recognition of important diseases, pests, and parasites that impact
honey bees. The course consists of individual modules that provide
background information on honey bees as well as clear, consistent
recommendations for apiary inspection. Individuals can take advantage of
the training at their convenience. The modular approach requires short
blocks of time for each section and the viewer can proceed at their own
pace viewing modules in any order they wish. Modules covering basic
information may not be necessary for more experienced beekeepers or apiary
inspectors. However, for those less familiar with the process, training
modules can be re-visited as necessary. The existing information will be
updated when appropriate and additional topics may be added in the future.
Within each module, there are short quizzes to test for understanding. A
series of skills practice sets is also included in this online training to
improve your understanding of brood, frame, and cluster count evaluation.
Nothing can replace actual hands-on experience, so this course should be
considered as an overview of the colony strength evaluation process with
the aim to improve consistency of inspections." This course comes
with a workbook that you can view or download, Honey Bee Colony Assessment Workbook .
First Year Beekeeping
is presented by biologist, Randy Oliver on his website
Scientific Beekeeping which is one of the best sources of beekeeping information
available. "I’ve attempted to distill 50 year’s of beekeeping experience into a short set
of instructions for starting out with bees in the Sierra Foothills. This
page provides some quick step-by-step notes for your first year of beekeeping,
written specifically for those starting with a nucleus hive or package bees
purchased from me, but generally applicable. Since the vast majority of
colony failures are due to lack of varroa management, I’ve covered this
subject more extensively. For a summary of treatment options, scroll to
the end (Randy Johnson)." As mentioned this website contains a wealth of
regularly updated information on most beekeeping subjects.
Ohio State University has created a free honey bee biology and beekeeping course based on
Dr. Reed Johnson's for-credit OSU Beekeeping Course. The free course
consists of video lectures, handouts and readings presented on iTunes which
is a free download. Unfortunately it's only available to those with
apple devices which means most people can not access it. The course is in
the testing phase, is extensive and consists of 138 segments covering every
aspect of bees and beekeeping including: Packages and Nucs; Package
Installation; Pheremones; Mites; Swarming; Vitellogenin; Queen rearing and
development; Foraging; Planting; Pesticides; Phenology; Nest Architecture;
Honey Extraction; IPM; Honey Flow; Honey Laundering; Commercial Pollination;
Drone Congregation; Dance Language; Feeding and Wintering; Honey
Crystalization; Apiary Sites; Nutrition; Pests and Diseases; Broodmapper;
Bee Races; and Bee Biology. O.S.U. is asking for volunteer beekeepers
to review the course and offer suggestions. The only suggestions I
would give of this great course are that a few of the videos are repeated
and that they be presented in order of learning. To access this course
and assist in it's development go to "Beekeeping and Honey Bee Biology on iTunes.
The University of California Cooperative Extension-San Diego County has
developed this self-paced online training course for beginning beekeepers
and as a refresher annual training for experienced beekeepers with hives
located in unincorporated areas of San Diego County. The course
consists of three modules and a 10-question quiz survey, which may be taken
separately. The entire course is approximately 30 minutes long. To
begin the course, click the button below and wait a moment for the course to
load in your Internet browser. If you are using Internet Explorer®, use the
'Direct Links,' below. Once started, you will be able to move through the
training using the forward or back arrows located at the bottom left and
right of your screen. You may also move back and forth through the course
using the slide navigation panel on the left. Note, module 2 includes
videos. Depending on your Internet connection, you may need to wait a few
moments for each video to load on-screen.
At the end of the training, you will be provided a link to the quiz survey.
You may also access the quiz, directly, by clicking the button or direct
link below. To begin the survey, you will be required to enter your first
and last names and email address. Your information and quiz results will be
recorded.1 A summary of your quiz results will be provided at the end. To
keep a copy of your quiz results for your own records, you may print using
your computer's print-screen function.
The BeeMD
is a diagnostic tool to help beekeepers identify honey bee health issues. The
BeeMD will be used in multiple modalities including computers and handheld
devices such as tablets and smart phones. The information on The BeeMD will be
continually evolving and updated as science and technology add new information
to the ability to diagnose and understand hive health. The BeeMD
originated as a project of the North American Pollinator Protection Campaign
(NAPPC) with funding from the USDA APHIS, the Rust Foundation, the Pollinator
Partnership and the University of Delaware. The founding team included the
University of Maryland, Jamie Ellis from The University of Florida, the
American Beekeeping Federation, and the Pollinator Partnership. The
BeeMD welcomes comments and photographs to expand the effectiveness of this
free service.
This is an introductory beekeeping course from master beekeeper
Janet Wilson which includes everything from hive components and acquiring
bees to seasonal management, diseases and pests. It is written from a
northwest perspective (West coast Vancouver, Coastal Washington State).
It's a fairly complete beginners course with links to expert resources
(i.e. Randy Oliver). "Week by week we will explore together the canon of knowledge which is
Beginning Beekeeping. We will both cover the usual course outline for
beginning beeks, and chat about what we are finding in our hives, and in the
beeyard, at this time of year (we are beginning in mid July in the Pacific
Northwest, in an unprecedentedly dry and sunny summer). The main focus
of our learnings will be giving you tools to prevent colony loss.
Upwards of 80% of new beekeepers quit beekeeping in under three years, likely
out of frustration when their bees keep dying. Bees are precious, and
expensive. So we will emphasize what it takes to keep bees alive, using lots
of web content and resources."
This is a beginner beekeeping course from Amazing Bees in Australia which includes bee biology, rules, regulations and
registration, hive inspection, honey extraction, swarming, queen
replacement, winter prep and feeding. It covers most everything a new
beekeeper in Australia needs to know.
The Perfect Bee
is a commercial beekeeping company that sells beekeeping equipment and
lessons. They also offer a free introductory beekeeping course in the
form of 40 emails. To sign up for the course go to
Perfect Bee Introductory Beekeeping Course . Below is a sample from
Paul Mikkilsen's website
which is a useful source of beekeeping information.
This is a fairly complete beginners beekeeping course from the Indira Ghandi
National Open University. The course focuses on beekeeping in India with
an awareness of the preference for the more productive introduced European
honey bee. The course covers subjects like bee biology, beekeeping
history, bee flora and pollination, seasonal management, pests and diseases,
hive products and the economics of beekeeping. The course is accompanied
by several manuals available to view or be downloaded from the University
website.
North of 60 Beekeeping For beekepers in the extreme north (Yukon, N.W.T. and Alaska). This website is a good source of beekeeping information specific
to northern latitudes. They include an education section which
covers all the basics from a northern perspective: Bee Biology
Basics, Getting Started, Northern Basics, Bee Yard Setup Basics, Nuc Install, Hive Inspection Basics, Disease and
Pests, Northern Forage, Honey Harvest and Fall and Winter Preparation.
Their
facebook group.
The PlanBee Beekeeping Training Course(Europe)
Plan BEE aims at the development of an apiculture training game for adults
supporting the development of beekeeping. The Plan BEE serious game will serve
as single information point that guides potential beekeepers on how to start a
lucrative business depending on their own needs and background by diminishing
risks related to traditional beekeeping. At the same time, the project aims at
increasing the bee population in the wild by promoting apiculture.
Beekeeping Tests
The legendary master beekeeper Dana Stahlman has an online course which is
being worked on at present but he has a test for the beginner, advanced and
master beekeeper which are useful tools. Check it out at
Gobeekeeping.
Beekeeping in West Virginia Beekeeping in West Virginia began with individuals keeping
bees in log hives often called gums. Some bees were managed in hives made
out of rough sawed lumber and they were called box hives. Records show
that these honeybee colonies produced from 14 to 24 pounds of honey on
average each year.
Western Honey Bee Subspecies The European Honey bee or Western Honey Bee (Apis Mellifera)
is a species of honey bee. The genus Apis is Latin for "Bee" and
mellifera comes from the Latin meli meaning "honey" and ferre meaning "to
bear". Hence the scientific name means "honey-bearing bee".
The name was coined in 1758 by Carolus Linnaeus who, realizing that
bees do not bear honey, but nectar, tried later to correct it to Apis
Mellifica (honey-making bee) in a subsequent publication. However,
according to the rules of synonymy in zoological nomenclature the older
name has precedence.
It's important to have a purpose/s when inspecting a hive. Why are you
inspecting and what are you looking for? An argument can be made that
new beekeepers can only improve their skills by regular weekly inspections
but the disruption to the colony is real and should be minimized. A
beekeeper can learn a great deal by observing the entrance to the
hive. The book "At the Hive Entrance" explains the value of being able to calculate a hive health by
observing the outside of the hive. In this video Paul Kelly, research
and apiary manager (University of Guelph, Canada), shows how to open a bee
hive and in the following video he will describe what you are looking for.
A
list of frequently asked questions
on the University of Guelph Honey Bee Research Centre website. These
videos are from University of Guelph's video series which can be found in
the
video series section
of our Library.
"OUTSIDE OF THE HIVE • What is the level of activity of the colony at
the entrance of the hive? • How does the activity compare to that of
other colonies in the bee yard? • Are the bees “bearding” (festooning)
and what does that behavior mean? • Is there any indication of robbing
behavior? • Are the bees bringing in pollen? What does that
mean? FESTOONING Hanging out on the front of a hive. Just cooling off
on the front porch on a hot summer day. Don’t confuse this with swarming or
robbing behavior. ROBBING BEHAVIOR Bees are all over a hive and can be on
all sides. Flight patterns are erratic and frenzied. Installing entrance
reducers may help to mitigate robbing behavior.... " INSIDE THE HIVE
Checking for adequate stores, queenright, pests, parasites and
diseases. Prepared and presented by Bill Evans, Master
Beekeeper, Rose Hill Farm, LLC, Jemison, Alabama.
Brood cell types
Hive Inspection Guide and Checklist "To have healthy, strong, honey producing hives, beekeepers
must make inspections to know the conditions inside the hive. Hive
inspection is simply a term to describe: Taking the hive apart and
making observations, then deciding what needs to be done, based upon those
observations. There are a number of things we need to look for when we
inspect a bee hive. An inspection sheet helps keep things organized and
allows easy comparison from one inspection to the next. Experienced
beekeepers may find this check list too detailed, but that’s really the
point. It helps keep beginners and forgetful old folks like me from
overlooking something important.
APPROACH the hive from behind or from the side. As much as possible, stay out
the bees’ line
of flight. The rule of thumb is to smoke the bees a little and smoke them
often. Give them 2 or 3
puffs of smoke in the entrance and under the lid before opening the hive.
After that, giving them
1 or 2 puffs of smoke across the frames before you remove each frame will
usually keep them
calm. Smoke under each box before removing it. If the bees get aggressive,
put a LOT of smoke
in the air. This will mask the alarm scent and some of the bees will seek
shelter inside the hive..."
Jerry Freeman, Ashley County Beekeepers Association, Arkansas.
An inspection sheet helps keep things organized and allows easy comparison
from one inspection to the next. It helps keep new beginners from
overlooking something important. I encourage you to use one of these
or one of the many available apps. As you become more experienced you
will make up your own checklist that suits your needs. There are many
apps and software programs for tracking your hives like Hive Tracks, BeeCloud and Beetight.
Inspect a Colony with
Project Apis m
Executive Director, Danielle Downey
The BeeMD
is a useful tool to help identify issues a beekeeper may find during an
inspection. "The BeeMD is a diagnostic tool to help beekeepers
identify honey bee health issues. The BeeMD will be used in multiple
modalities including computers and handheld devices such as tablets and
smart phones. The information on The BeeMD will be continually evolving and
updated as science and technology add new information to the ability to
diagnose and understand hive health." The BeeMD originated as a
project of the North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) with
funding from the USDA APHIS, the Rust Foundation, the Pollinator Partnership
and the University of Delaware. The founding team included the University of
Maryland, Jamie Ellis from The University of Florida, the American
Beekeeping Federation, and the Pollinator Partnership.
Finding the Queen - It's important that new beekeepers know you don't have
to find your queen each inspection. You can observe the state of her
health and performance by the brood pattern and the presence of all ages
of brood from egg to capped.
However, finding the queen is a necessary skill you will eventually have
to develop.
• The more your eyes get used to landing on the queen, the faster you will
be able to find her during hive inspections.
• The queen will often be moving, but training yourself to recognize her
on still pictures will still make you better at locating her.
• She is often easier to see when she is moving. She is much larger
than workers and when she moves quickly she leaves a wake of workers in
her path.
• If she is laying, or not
running from you, her movement is usually slow and graceful with a
noticeable retinue of attendants as seen in many of these images.
• Move from slide to slide, and see how fast you can find her. Some are
very easy. Others are more of a challenge.
• She is often easier to see when she is moving. She is much larger than
workers and when she moves quickly she leavesa wake of workers in her
path.
• If she is laying, or not running from you, her movement isusually slow
and graceful with a noticeable retinue of
attendants as seen in many of these images.
• Move from slide to slide, and see how fast you can find her. Some are
very easy. Others are more of a challenge.
The advantages of using Nucs (University of Florida) Nucleus colonies, commonly called “nucs”, are smaller versions
of full-size Langstroth colonies. They usu-ally have the same length and
depth dimensions as full-size colonies, but nucs are not as wide. As such,
nucs may hold 3-5 frames compared to the 8-10 frames typically held by a
full size colony. A second type of nuc, commonly called a “baby nuc” or
“queen mating nuc”, exists but is smaller than full-size colonies in every
dimension and is used primarily for queen bee production. Queen mating nucs
will not be discussed in this document. Rather, we will focus on five-frame
nucs exclusively, although three- and four-frame nucs can be used and
managed almost identically.
The main thrust of Checkerboarding is to break up the overhead band of
capped honey maintained by the colony through the swarm preparation season.
(The literature refers to the band of honey or nectar as causing a “honey
bound” condition.) In the undisturbed colony, it is capped honey. In the
colony reversed in the early season, the band is rebuilt with nectar.
Maintenance of the band is deliberate addition of empty comb above the band
is often ignored, and swarm preparations continue below the band – which
Walt calls the “reserve”. He says that the reserve is maintained through the
swarm prep period to offset forage drop – outs or bad weather during swarm
preps.
(Beaverlodge Research Farm, Alberta, Canada) In nature bees have two
general methods for maintaining colony temperatures in winter: 1) selecting
a protected and well-suited cavity (Tab. 1) and 2) clustering.
Clusters have a two-part structure (Fig. 1): 1) a dense outer mantle
in which bees jam together, orienting their heads towards the center of the
cluster and 2) a loose inner core where bees are free to move. The mantle
insulates and, at its tightest, approaches the insulation of bird feathers
or mammal fur (0.1 W/kg/ºC). Clusters move slowly from empty combs to ones
full of honey. This movement is typically upwards and sideways, never
downwards. Before we go on, here are four critical temperatures you should
know: 1) brood nest = 32-36ºC, 2) minimum thorax temperature needed for
flight = 27ºC, 3) minimum temperature needed to pump flight muscles and warm
up (analogous to mammal “shivering”) = 18ºCand 4) below which bees go into a
“chill coma” = 6ºC.
operation. The following statements might have made for a good title for
this publication and reflect underlying principles for the recommendations
found herein. These sayings have become something of a mantra from
beekeepers with experience in managing indoor storage.“You get out what
you put in” “Garbage in, garbage out” “Storages are not hospitals” Indoor
storage is not a cure-all and they are not suitable for all operations.
All the work and preparation in the month leading up to the storage period
are critical. This document is intended to be a starting block to be built
up and create a central repository of knowledge on the practice of indoor
honey bee storage and the management surrounding storing bees in
buildings. The following sections are the initial collection of invited
contributions from individuals with experience from different aspects
related to indoor storage. We expect to learn more and openly invite
additional collaborators to add to this work - watch for an online
resource coming soon. Following this introduction is - The “Ins” and
“Outs”. A section intended
to cover the preparation of colonies before they go into storage and some
precautions and advise for treatment of colonies when they get out of
storage. This is mainly composed of advice gathered from commercial
operations who have been storing bees indoors.
Indoor storage of honey bee colonies for winter is not a new idea, but it is rapidly becoming a more widely-used practice, with many potential benefits to explore.
This virtual conference is presented by Project Apis m., The Almond Board of California, and Washington State University. Resources and content in this video include Researcher talks about the latest science and results, panel discussions with Researchers, Commercial Beekeepers, and an HVAC specialist, and virtual tours and informative videos.
Chapter Links Below:
0:00 - Introduction of Day 1 with Danielle Downey, Project Apis m.
7:51 - Research Talk: Population Dynamics and Biology of Colonies Overwintered in Storage with Dr. Gloria DeGrandi-Hoffman, USDA-ARS
0:58:33 - Mini Documentary Part 1: Indoor Storage of Honey Bees: Tour of Buildings and HVAC Systems
1:13:18 - Mini Documentary Part 2: Indoor Storage of Honey Bees: Preparing Bees for Indoor Storage
1:24:42 - Day 1 Panel Discussion "Indoor Storage Today" with Buzz Landon, Dr. Brandon Hopkins, Dr. Gloria DeGrandi-Hoffmann, Nick Noyes, and Bryan Ashurst
2:38:37 - Introduction of Day 2 with Dr. Josette Lewis, Almond Board of Califorina
2:42:30 - Research Talk: Research Updates from Washington State University, with Dr. Brandon Hopkins
3:54:03 - Resources for Non-Commercial Beekeepers, with Dr. Kelly Kulhanek
3:57:33 - Mini Documentary Part 3: Indoor Storage of Honey Bees: Putting Bees into Storage
4:07:10 - Mini Documentary Part 4: Indoor Storage of Honey Bees: During and After Storage
4:17:02 - Day 2 Panel Discussion "Best Practices and HVAC Considerations" with Nick Noyes, Anthony Molitor, Dr. Brandon Hopkins, and Jason Miller
For those beekeeping in the extreme north
(Yukon, NWT and Alaska) a good source of information is
North of 60 Beekeeping.
Our goals are:
To develop a better understanding of Beekeeping in Extreme Northern
Climates (Yukon, NWT and Alaska)
•Best Practices – How can we improve yields and winter survival of
honeybees?
•Best Forage for Success – What are the best native and non-native
pollen and nectar sources in the different parts of the North?
•Best Equipment to Use – What is the best equipment to use to here for
our specific conditions?
To develop North of 60 beekeeping knowledge for all levels
To introduce beekeeping to more people in the North (more data and
experiences to learn from and share)
•Save money by not making the same mistakes we made
•Ability to run successful beekeeping businesses
•Pooling and sharing resources, skills and tools to reduce some costs
(OAV Vapourizer, Extractors, Books, etc...)
•To educate beekeepers on diseases and pest that could have a large
impact on the viability of keeping bees in the North Facebook group
Abstract: A bee colony in a hive will undergo a wide variety of
heating and cooling events related to weather and due to internal hive
biological processes (e.g. brood rearing) where they will be required
“control” thermoregulate their internal environment. Our job as
beekeepers is to understand these requirements and provide them with
the best “homes” possible for them to succeed. In this presentation I
will explore the use of simple. Temperature and Humidity data
(in/out of the hive), basic geometry and basic thermodynamic
principles to illustrate what goes on in the hive during very cold
winters (0C to -46C). I will look to find practical
implications/approaches and concepts that beekeeperscan use to improve
their wintering performance and make the bees more comfortable during
very cold winters.
The "Biology of Wintering Bees" by Medhat Nasr, Provincial Apiarist,
Alberta, Canada.
Beehive construction
(B.C. Government) - Most beekeepers will assemble pre-cut beehive
equipment at some time. Others go farther by manufacturing their
own equipment. In either case, it is important to use standard
dimensions and assembly methods to ensure that the equipment will be
interchangeable, strong and durable. This publication offers
dimensions and designs of individual hive parts, and a few assembly
hints. In Canada, the Langstroth movable-frame hive has been adopted
as the hive standard. This hive design provides simplicity of
construction and ease of manipulation, permitting rapid inspection and
interchange of frames. Well-constructed equipment pays off in
ease of management, and retains its resale value.
Beehive Construction Resource Websites
- One of the best sources of beehive construction information I have
found is Steve Tilmann of the Michigan Beekeepers
Association. His instructional written and video presentations
are detailed and easy to understand. A great contribution to
the beekeeping community. Michigan Beekeepers AssociationBeekeepers Workshop Videos
Hive bodies take a lot of abuse and need to be con-structed accordingly. Not only do they have to bear a lot of weight (up to 70 pounds, or more) for a super, but the bee-keeper will use their hive tool to twist and pry apart hive bodies after the bees glue everything together with propolis. Of all the hive components, hive bodies have the most differences in size. There are four standard heights
(referred to as “depth”) for hive bodes: deep, medium, shallow and
comb honey. In addition there are three common widths:
10-frame, 8-frame and 5-frame. We typically recommend to beekeepers just starting out to decide on one size hive body and then stick with it. That
way, all equipment is interchangeable. Because a 10-frame deep super can be very heavy (70+ pounds), we suggest using 10-frame mediums (which usually top out around 35 pounds when full of honey). The plans presented in this article are for
10-frame medium hive bodies, though tables on the cut list page provide dimensions for the other sizes.
1. #8 Hardware cloth should be placed over the middle section of the
bottom of the hive for ventilation. It is easiest to install if it is
stapled on after the front, back and sides are assembled but before the
bottom is attached. 2. A 9 3/4 x 9'' piece of corrugated plastic
can be slid in the dados in the bottom pieces to block off the
ventilation in cold weather. 3. The feet may be made of treated
wood or other wood that resists rot to extend life. 4. To enable
feeding the nuc a hole may be cut in the top to fit a quart jar or other
suitable feeder. Screen may be placed on the inner side of the hole to
prevent the bees from coming out when the feeder is replaced and a
square of heavy plastic may be placed over the hole and attached by one
screw or nail. This piece of plastic can be moved aside when feeding and
moved over the hole when not feeding.
5. When moving the nuc you need only close off the entrance with duct
tape. The bees will have plenty of ventilation from the bottom screen.
Give entire inside of feeder two coats of polyurethane or
marine varnish. Pour molten wax onto all inside
seams. Attach hardware cloth to top of boards "A" with
staples (Beesource.com).
English translation: The large bicycle tires (57-406, 20 x 2,
125) give the sack barrow a particularly good ride suitability in uneven terrain. The wide wheelbase provides a good grip against slip of the Hives. The Prey truck for hives to max. 46 cm width. If your hives be wider than 46 cm, is only an adaptation of Pos. 1 and 2 (see Plan A) to the desired width make. The construction of the prey truck based on both a comfortable
posture and on the great usability with secure stand against overturning.
A properly constructed electric fence is safe for people and pets
and has proven to be effective at deterring bears from apiaries (beehives), fruit trees, gardens,
livestock pens, rabbit hutches, garbage containers, dog kennels, chicken coups, compost piles, storage sheds,
along with numerous other uses. There is an abundant variety of applications and effective fencing
designs for deterring bears. Design, construction and proper maintenance will determine the effectiveness of
your electric fence. Safety is always a concern when using electrified equipment. Modern
electric fence energizers have been shown to be safe for humans, animals and vegetation. The pulse
rate of a modern energizer is so quick that they cannot generate enough heat to start vegetation on
fire. While touching an electrified fence is unpleasant, modern energizers are safe to use around pets
and children.
The bicycle wheel extractor begins with a bike. The frame cage
is made of the bicycle rims, with the spokes serving to hold the
frames in place. Which bike you want is based on your drum and
your frames. Not all bike wheels are created equal, primarily
because of the spoke design. For the western supers I use, I
discovered that the front wheels of some sixteen inch bicycles would
fit nicely, while the rear wheel and some other spoke patterns
wouldn’t allow western frames (but did allow true shallow
frames). The way that I discovered this involved my daughter’s
bike. “You don’t need a wrench to put on streamers,” she
said. Her bike wasn’t right anyway. I didn’t want to buy
two bikes just to sacrifice the front wheel, so tape measure in hand I
descended on yard sales and thrift shops, carrying a western frame
along for a “test fit”...
Fat Bees Skinny Bees
- a manual on honey bee nutrition for beekeepers by Doug Somerville
(Australian Government). This publication provides information on the
known essential chemical requirements of honey bees including the
components of nectar and pollen. Pollens with a protein level
around 25% or greater have been recognised as excellent quality
pollens, those less than 20% have been described as of a poor
quality. Australia has had more pollens analysed than any other
country, and for the first time all of the profiles of the analysis
are presented, representing 183 species. There is some
evidence that pollens from the same genus, i.e., closely related
plants, exhibit similar nutritional values in regards to pollen
chemical composition.
Lack of nectar or stored honey presents the beekeeper with various
sets of problems.
These scenarios are discussed with the most appropriate course of
action. Likewise,
lack of pollen or poor quality pollen creates its own set of
problems, often exacerbated
by the stimulus of a nectar flow. How to recognise the need to
provide pollen
supplement and the circumstances which may lead a beekeeper to
invest in this
practice are discussed.
Some facts about honey bee nutrition include; nectar flows
stimulate hygienic
behaviour; total protein intake is what should be
considered, not so much the individual
chemical properties of individual pollens; fats in pollen
act as strong attractants to
foraging bees, although increasing concentrations in
pollen limit brood rearing;
vitamins are very unstable and deteriorate in stored
pollen; principal cause of winter
losses is starvation, not cold...
Nutrition Section
of Scientific Beekeeping (Randy Oliver) which includes studies on a
variety of topics like light or heavy syrup?; probiotics; beebread; pollen
substitutes and more.
Give entire inside of feeder two coats of polyurethane or marine
varnish. Pour molten wax onto all inside seams. Attach
hardware cloth to top of boards "A" with staples
(Beesource.com).
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