In l995 wolves from Canada were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park after a 70 year absence. They had been exterminated by ranchers wanting to protect their livestock and by trophy hunters. The reintroduction of wolves led to something called a "trophic cascade". This phenomena occurs when predators in a food web suppress the abundance or alter the behavior of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation (or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is a herbivore). Without wolves the population of deer and elk escalated which led to extreme overgrazing. Reintroduction of the wolves led to a myriad of beneficial consequences to a variety of species which the video below explains. One of the benefits to native bees is the increase in aspen and willow (great early season pollen) and the many varieties of fruit bushes and wildflowers (Wildflowers of Yellowstone) which had been overgrazed by the unchecked population of deer and elk. The video "How Wolves Change Rivers" describes how trophic cascade or removing the top predator, the wolf from Yellowstone effected the entire ecosystem and how the return of the wolf had remarkable beneficial effects.
A biological survey (Bioblitz) held on August 28-29th, 2009 in the northwest corner of Yellowstone National Park identified 46 species of native bees. Biologists estimate that there are between 400-500 species of native bees in Yellowstone.
My first experience with wolves was about 45 years ago when as a young man working on the railway in the Rocky Mountains I met my first wolf. I was alone in a blizzard, five miles from camp carrying about 80 lbs of equipment with the task of switching the rails. As a young greenhorn, unable to see because of the whiteout conditions, I felt my way along the tracks thinking for sure this was my last day on earth. The snow let up briefly enough for me to see a wolf come out of the woods. Spotting me the wolf froze about 10 meters from me and growled. In my anger and desperation I growled back wielding an 8 foot long iron pry bar. We starred at each other for what seemed like an eternity (probably 30 seconds), he turned and disappeared back into the woods. Since that moment I have always held a special love and admiration for wolves.
For many backyard beekeepers the thought of grafting queen cells sounds similar to performing brain surgery or rocket science. While there are many methods of making queens (Advanced Beekeeping) Randy Oliver has produced a great powerpoint presentation that provides an easy and understandable step-by-step tutorial on grafting queen cells. The advantages of creating your own queens are numerous. They include cost savings as queens in our area sell for about $60. Also time savings as allowing a split nuc to create their own queen takes about 30 days to produce a laying queen. This means the building of your colony and honey production are delayed 30 days. Maybe most important of all, grafting your own queens from your strongest colony allows you to control some of the future genetics of your colonies (not the drones). This allows you to participate in creating your own disease resistant, hygienic, local, survivor stock which may be the most important aspect of the future of beekeeping.
While the grafting process can be performed at any time mating is possible your local swarm season is best. All that is required is a frame of pollen, a frame of young brood and lots of nurse bees. The tools required are a grafting tool, plastic cell cups and a damp towel. A magnifying jeweler's headlamp is optional. Queens emerge 10-12 days after grafting. To check out Randy's detailed powerpoint on grafting view and/or download Queens for Pennies in Pdf format or Queens for Pennies in powerpoint format from our Beekeepers' Library or better yet go to ScientificBeekeeping.com. A great beekeeping resource website.
The Varroa mite is a small mite (approximately 1mm in diameter) native to
Asia and the Asian honey bee (Apis Cerana) which has developed a
resistance to the mite enabling it to cope with it's presence. In the early part of the
twentieth century Russian beekeepers brought the European honey bee to the
Korean Peninsula via the Trans Siberian Railroad where it became the first
European honey bee (Apis Mellifera) infested with the Varroa. There are two types of Varroa mite, Japanese
and Korean of which the former Japanese has not as of yet spread to other parts
of the world. The Korean Varroa mite
mutated and adapted to the European honey bee which has no defense to it's
presence. Over the last 50 plus years
the Varroa has spread from country to country having reached North America
about 30 years ago. However, it did not
establish a stronghold until the last decade when it's presence became a
serious threat to the bees (both native and honey) in North America. The Varroa displays vampire like behavior
(blood sucking), is a carrier of 18 identified viruses (Including
Sacbrood, Acute Bee Paralysis, Deformed Wing Virus and Israel Acute Paralysis)
and is considered a major contributing factor along with pesticides in Colony Collapse Disorder.
The Varroa was named after Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar who was also a beekeeper (I expect he wouldn't be too happy about that).
Worldwide spread of the Varroa Mite
Australia remains the only beekeeping nation free of the Varroa destructor mite (Australia still Varroa free). In Canada the island portion of Newfoundland remains Varroa free.
There are many methods of treating your hives for mites such as the pesticides Apistan and Checkmite. As with all pesticides, the pests may adapt and therefore it is suggested that treatments be changed each year to prevent adaptation. Traces of the chemicals may remain and accumulate in the wax. This can weaken the bees immune system and makes them more susceptible to pathogens and pests.
There are also a number of organic mite treatments like drone brood removal, brood breaks (through natural splits), heating (see below), screened bottom boards, Formic (Mite Away Quick Strips) or Oxalic acid (Powerpoint by Randy Oliver), mineral oils (including thymol as crystals or Apiguard) and sugar dusting (Study by Randy Oliver). It is suggested that you use a combination of control measures.
While there are many proposed forms of bio control of Varroa (i.e. Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana ...) the predatory mites used to control Varroa are a species of Stratiolaelaps mites (Hypoaspis) which have been used for biological control in horticulture for over 15 years (Stratiolaelaps). This predator mite attacks the phoretic (adult) stages of the Varroa mite. The idea is that they can keep the Varroa population at a low level which does not significantly effect the colony. Unlike some chemicals Stratiolaelaps (Stratiolaelaps) can be used throughout the year (during the nectar season), there is no accumulation in the hive wax and presumably no adaptation by the Varroa.
The results from the early stages of testing of the use of Stratiolaelaps have been mixed. The "Niagara Beeway" in southern Ontario have reported positive results.
As part of the Bee Informed survey Brookfield Farm in northwest Washington State found Strateolaelaps did not reduce the population of Varroa in the bee colonies. Here is a post by Brookfield Farm detailing the methods and results of predatory mite usage (Mites that might eat mites). The issues regarding the use of Stratiolaelaps are that they only works on adult bees (not the larvae where mite reproduction take place), do not work on heavily infested hives, are expensive and they leave the hive for their natural environment in the soil. An updated video from the Niagara Beeway contradicts some of these findings suggesting that there were no mites in the drone brood and Stratiolaelaps were breeding in the hive. I've not seen any studies since to support this. They also suggest that they may provide a solution for the small hive beetle. In the video Ham SS refers to Stratiolaelaps.
Phil Chandler, the "Barefoot Beekeeper" proposes the use of an "Eco Floor" in a Top Bar Hive in this case to provide a natural environment for predatory mites. The Eco Floor can be adapted to any style of hive.
"A simple modification to the floor of the horizontal (Kenyan-style) top
bar hive improves insulation, reduces air exchange at floor level and
creates an enclosed ecosystem designed to provide habitat for earwigs,
wood lice, moulds, fungi and myriad other flora and fauna that may be
found inside the average hollow log - the natural habitat of the
honeybee."
"No creature on Earth lives in isolation from all others.
All sorts of relationships develop between different species, many of
them mutually beneficial. Yet honeybees are usually housed in sterile,
wooden boxes with little opportunity to come into contact with the
myriad other bugs, beetles and bacteria found in their natural habitat:
hollow trees. Little is known about the effects on bees of other
organisms, but it seems reasonable to suppose that because they have
co-evolved with a whole range of other species over tens of millions of
years, they will have developed mutually beneficial relationships with
some of them." Phil Chandler
In this video Phil Chandler shows how the deep floor is made and how it can be
retro-fitted to any top bar hive.
As of yet Phil has not done any studies on long term resident population of Strateolaelaps in the hive (Eco Floor). The problems with the "Eco Floor" are the hive is generally warmer than the natural environment of Strateolaelaps (soil), there is no light in the hive to allow for plant growth (part of Strateolaelaps diet) and there is no evidence that Strateolaelaps will leave the soil and travel upwards through the frames to feed on Varroa.
In New Zealand there are preliminary studies being carried out on the use of Pseudoscorpions as predators of Varroa (Pseudoscorpion Study). There are also preliminry studies from the University of Warwick (England) (Varroa killing Fungi) on naturally occurring fungi that kill the varroa mite. They have narrowed the field down to four potential lethal fungi and are determining the method of delivery (i.e. foot bath, spray..). In addition mycological researcher Paul Stamets has found that mushrooms offer many benefits to bees including detoxification, immunity booster and disease control, and increased longevity of worker bees. It has been suggested by some that this is due to the natural presence of oxalic acid which is relatively low (Oxalic acid presence in mushrooms).
These graphs show the effects of mycelium fungi increasing bee survival rate and longevity
Further studies are being carried out and the product may be available to the market in the near future (Fungus and bee health). Meanwhile watch for your bees feeding on fungi and consider planting some mushrooms in your apiary. In this video Paul Stamets explains the connection between mushrooms and bee health.
In Germany they are studying the use of mite sex pheremone to disrupt male sex activity and have found a significant reduction in mite reproduction.
For many years researchers have been studying the effects of heat on Varroa. At temperatures above 39 celsius (102 fahrenheit) mites suffer irreparable damage while bees can manage temeratures up to 45 celsius (113 fahrenheit).
There have been many marketed hive heaters from the inexpensive Mite Zapper , to the under hive mounted Hive Sauna to the Thermosolar Hive above ($650 U.S. plus shipping). To enable exacting heat control so as not to harm the bees expensive sophistication appears paramount. There is also the issue of honey deterioration at high temperatures. Heating honey to 37 celsius (98 fahrenheit) reduces nutritional value.
On a unrelated note a BYU undergraduate is working on a biocontrol of American Foulbrood. Phages (microscopic bugs) are used to kill the AFB bacteria.
“Phages are the most abundant life form on the planet and each phage has
a unique bacteria that it will attack,” said Sandra Burnett, BYU
professor of microbiology and molecular biology. “This makes phage an
ideal treatment for bacterial disease because it can target specific
bacteria while leaving all other cells alone.”
The trick is identifying the right phage. They have narrowed it down to 5 phages (Research article).
I believe the future of dealing with Varroa will be breeding for Varroa Sensitive Hygienic behavior (Breeding for Hygienic Behavior by Marla Spivak and Gary Reuter). Many believe that the VSH behavior traits
are passed both genetically and through observed learning. In hives
with VSH behavior bees, bee pupae infected with mites are detected and
removed. Other VSH behavior traits include: more effective self
grooming; group grooming; guard bees removing mites from bees entering
the hive (either killing the mites or chasing them from the hive) and
bees using their mandibles to kill the mites. Decreased drone production
(most mite reproduction takes place in drone brood) and a higher
resistance to diseases (the diseases passed by the mites kill the bees
not the mites themselves) are also desirable breeding traits. While there are very positive results of breeding queens for VSH behavior the long term problem is the inability to flood the area breeding population (drones as well) with bees possessing VSH traits. It is important to remember that Asian
honey bees (Apis cerana), African honey bees (Apis mellifera
scutellata), Africanized honey bees (hybrid European and African) and a
strain of Russian honey bees have developed an effective resistance to
the varroa mite. Some believe that the unnaturally increased size of Apis Mellifera (carried out 100 years ago to increase honey production) hinders their attempts to remove the mites and the enlarged areas between body segments allows for mite penetration. If true this would support the beliefs of natural, small-cell beekeepers who also support the practice of non treatment. To this point there is no scientific, conclusive proof of this theory (some natural beekeepers would argue this). The video below shows bees displaying VSH behavior by removing mites (removal at the 2 minute point of the video).
For further information on hygienic behavior in honey bees go to the Hygienic Behavior section of our Beekeepers' Library.
While I don't profess to know the perfect solution this year I am using Mite Away Quick Strips (naturally occurring formic acid) to control the Varroa population. I'm treating usuallly at least twice per season based on what has worked for me (once in early summer May-June and once in late summer, September). This method is open to change as needed or not. I test regularly but not so much to derive a specific number but to compare the health of the colony with the mite population to observe any possible developing coping mechanisms. For more information on Varroa Mites and mite treatment go to the Varroa Mite section of our Beekeepers' Library. I hope that whatever method of mite defense you employ is successful and that you and your bees are healthy and happy.
"There is no other field of animal husbandry like
beekeeping. It has the appeal to the scientist, the nature lover, and even (or
especially) the philosopher. It is a chance to work with some of the most
fascinating of God's creatures, to spend time and do work in the great
outdoors, to challenge my abilities and continue to learn. My hope is that I
never become so frail with old age that I cannot spend my days among the bees.
It gives credence to the old saw that "the best things in life are free".
I thank God daily for the opportunity and privilege to be a beekeeper."
In a recently released report from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (Risk Assessment of Importation of U.S Honey Bees) they concluded that the risk was too great to remove the blockade on U.S honey bees (this post was originally written in 2013 when the assessment was released). The initial blockade was implemented in 1987 in response to an outbreak in the U.S of the tracheal and varroa mites.
My personal viewpoint on the subject has evolved through the years. Initially I was totally against the ban on importation of U.S bees from a purely practical point of view. First it made no sense to import bees from the southern hemisphere (Canadian Regulations on Importation of Honey Bees) thousands of miles away when bees were readily available closeby at a fraction of the cost and environmental impact. Present regulations allow Canadians to import packages of bees from New Zealand, Australia and Chile only and queens from New Zealand, Australia, Chile, California and Hawaii. Secondly, the blockade has not worked. 26 years after the ban on U.S bees, both the tracheal and varroa mites are alive and established in Canada. Strange as it may seem bee swarms do not go through the regulated border crossings when flying into Canada. The majority of the Canadian population and beekeepers live close to the U.S/Canada border which is the longest unregulated border in the world. My viewpoint now is very much in support of developing localized bee breeding. I think it's important for us to decrease our dependence on imported bees. Many of the major pests and diseases we are dealing with are imported and our reliance on imported early spring packages prevents us from developing a strong, local, survivor stock bee population. As E. Punnett and M. Winston of Simon Fraser University suggested 30 years ago "a local bee production industry would not only be a new and lucrative source of income for local beekeepers, but may be essential to the survival of Canadian beekeeping." (A Comparison of Package and Nucleus Production from Honey Bee Colonies)
The reasons given for maintaining the ban on importation of U.S bee packages are the risks associated with the importation of Africanized honey bees, antibiotic-resistant American foulbrood, small hive beetle and amitraz resistant varroa mite.
I believe maintaining the ban on importation of American bees will only delay the arrival of these 4 stated health risks. Reasons that these risks may not be valid are most jurisdictions do not treat American foulbrood but have regulated mandatory eradication through the burning of the colony and hive. The small hive beetle has been detected in small populations in Canada but is considered more of a southern problem probably due to it's origination in the warmer climates of Africa. The small hive beetle arrived in Australia in 2002. Similarly, the Africanized bees progress northward has been slowed by the colder winters of the north (Killer Bees). As the Africanized bee moves northward the genetic dilution of the much publicized aggressive behavior and tendencies toward swarming have resulted in the creation of a more manageable bee. Finally, all pests eventually develop resistance to pesticides. The philosophy of agrichemical dependent farming (including beekeeping) only serves the profits of the agrichemical corporations. In addition Australia has as stated the small hive beetle, the Braula fly and is geographically susceptible to the Tropilaelaps mite especially with the recent findings of Apis Cerana and Varroa mites. Tropilaelaps mites have rapidly expanded their range over the last 50 years and are present throughout Asia, including nearby Indonesia and Papua New Guinea (roughly 3.75 km separates the two countries at Saibai Island). The Tropilaelaps mite may be a greater future threat to us than any of the 4 stated threats posed by U.S. importation. At present the mite range is limited by lack of brood in cold regions as their mouths can't penetrate the exoskeleton of adult bees they starve in 3 days outside of brood. The concern as stated by the BBVA is increased year round brood presence due to global warming especially for us in the lower mainland.
The dilemma is that my alternate solution of locally produced survivor stock is not a practical reality. It will take substantial support and leadership from the government and bee industry to create a large scale bee breeding industry capable of supplying our needs and to date there is none. Everyone appears content with our present reliance on southern hemisphere imports. Meanwhile beekeepers are faced with the financial reality associated with importing bees from the southern hemisphere.
Maybe we should build a Bee Wall.
While I have been honey beekeeping for a number of years this year was my first attempt to raise native Blue Orchard Mason Bees in our garden. Also known as Osmia Lignaria it is a major native pollinator in our area of the world. They make nests in reeds or natural holes and utilize mud to space their cocoons. This bee is a particularly important spring fruit tree pollinator for us.
While there is an endless variety of homes that your can make for your mason bees and I encourage you to do so (Native Pollinators) the important thing is that the inner tube be accessible to clean and access the cocoons. Without the ability to access and clean the nesting area it would soon become filled with debris, mites, diseases, wasps ...
These are the trays that I used this year which are easily seperated and cleaned but a good alterntive is simple paper straws that can be removed.
Orange Rumped Bumble Bee
I have identified a number of native and non native bees and wasps in our garden and my favourite and most prolific is the Orange Rumped Bumble Bee (Melanopygus) which pollinates our raspberries, blueberries and black locusts to name a few. How can you not like a bee whose distinguishing feature is it's butt. However, the population of Blue Orchard Mason bees is relatively low which is why I am raising them.
Above is a view of some of my harvested cocoons covered in mites and mite poop. The cleaning process I initially employed was the sand method.
The process is fairly simple mixing the sand with the cocoons and sifting through a screen. This method is described below in the video by Hutchings Bees.
I found that this method did not work for me completely and possibly it was because of the type of sand I used. After the process the cocoons were still covered in debris.
To finish the cleansing process I soaked the cocoons in a 5% solution of bleech and gently scrubbed with an old tooth brush.
The finished product.
I then put the cocoons in a paper bag enclosed in a plastic bag in the crisper section of the fridge. Modern self defrosting fridges tend to be too dry so the crisper section is recommended. The cocoons will be placed outside in their mason bee homes in early spring.
P.S. After a few years of keeping mason bees I have evolved to making my bee houses by simply drilling 3/8ths inch holes in 6 inch deep wood. I use plain, unbleached brown paper from grocery bags rolled around a tent pole as liners which brings the finished diameter of the hole to the optimal 5/16th inch. The rolled liners extend 1 inch out the back and are folded over with a back plate screwed on. When harvest time comes I just unscrew the back plate and pull out the paper liners (Paper Liners That Work). For more information on how to manage Mason Bees for your home or farm go to the Native Pollinators section of our Library and scroll down to Mason Bees. If you are just starting out you can buy cocoons off Craigslist for 50 cents a cocoon and from some garden stores for $1 per cocoon. Good sources of supplies and information are Crown Bees and Beediverse. Good luck.
This video from Boulder County Beekeepers gives a good overview of the problems associated with neonicotinoid pesticides. For years beekeepers worldwide have observed the detrimental effects of the systemic neonicotinoid pesticides on bees. The studied effects are both lethal and possibly more important sublethal. The accumulation of neonic pesticides in the hive effects the bee's nervous system and lowers their immune system making the bees more susceptible to diseases (Neonics weaken Bee immune system). The effects go beyond this as recent evidence shows an accumulation of neonics in waterways adjacent to agricultural areas poses a risk to fish and birds in these ecosystems (Neonicotinoid Pesticides in Wetland Water). In addition because of the monopolization of the seed market by the major agrochemical corporations farmers have difficulty finding seeds that don't contain neonicotinoid pesticides. This is why Europe has recently placed a two year ban on the use of neonicotinoid pesticides. Further evidence of the effects of neonicotinoids on bees and the environment can be found in the Insecticides and Bees section of our Beekeepers' Library. The first 17 minutes of this video relates to issue of neonics and bees.
In an ideal world we would produce all of our own food locally and organically but in reality we import a significant portion. Much of this comes from developing countries where farmers have traditionally been exploited by greedy buyers who set the price far below a liveable earning. The concept of "Fair Trade" has empowered these farmers and provided them and their communities with a fair income which has allowed them a healthier, happier lifestyle. This documentary "Hope is Golden" is about the beekeeping cooperatives in Brazil’s arid Caatinga region that produce Fair Trade certified honey.
The Fair Trade organizations provide funding for the infrastructure required by farming cooperatives in developing countries. "Fair Trade International" began 25 years ago and in 2012 the number of Fairtrade producer organizations grew by 16%. It works and it is growing. Please support fair trade for all products including honey, tea, chocolate, sugar, fruit, flowers and coffee. For more information go to Fair Trade Canada or Fair Trade USA.
It was a beautiful, sunny 15 degree celsius (60 fahrenheit) day in the garden and the bees were very active. At this time of year there are a wide assortment of blossoms available to be foraged upon but one of the favourites is an unplanted native, invasive plant, the Dandelion (Taraxacum) of the Asteraceae (Aster) Family. Many still think of the Dandelion as an unwanted weed but I hope that attitude is changing along with the need for a manicured lawn. For us the Dandelion can flower throughout the growing period and if the seed heads are allowed to mature you are guaranteed a plentiful crop.
My garden is a 4 acre community garden close to downtown Vancouver and through the years I have grown to appreciate the weeds (?) and the invasive plants. Being a very multicultural city it is so interesting to hear the perspective of different cultures on particular plants. Gout weed ( Aegopodium podagraria) for example is an extremely invasive plant, native to Eurasia which although enjoyed by the bees is impossible to remove and an irritant to all of the gardeners. One day two Chinese women approached me and asked if they could harvest our gout weed. Attempting to hide my enthusiasm I asked them why. They told me of it's medicinal properties (primarily to treat stomach ailments- thus the name gout weed) and told me how they boil it and prepare a tea. On the same day I saw two older men harvesting dandelion leaves. They explained to me that in Italy they cherish the leaves and fry them in olive oil and garlic. The entire plant is edible and the flower petals, along with other ingredients, are used to make dandelion wine. The leaves are best when they first appear or after the first frost (Recipes). The ground, roasted roots can be used as a caffeine-free dandelion coffee. Dandelion was also traditionally used to make the traditional British soft drink dandelion and burdock, and is one of the ingredients of root beer. Also, Dandelions were once delicacies eaten by the Victorian gentry mostly in salads and sandwiches. Dandelion leaves contain abundant vitamins and minerals, especially vitamins A, C, K, niacin, riboflaven and are good sources of calcium, potassium, iron, manganese and beta carotene. Lecithin in the flower detoxifies the liver. As well Dandelions nourish other plants through it's long (up to 3 ft) tap root which brings minerals and nutrients from a less contaminated part of the soil to the surface where it is utilized by the shorter roots of neighbouring plants. If you break the stem of a dandelion the white fluid that appears can be used to ease the pain of bee stings or sores. Wow! What an amazing plant.
Like us bees are healthier, live longer and perform better when feeding on a mixed diet. The worldwide practice of monoculture agriculture cannot sustain a honey or native bee population (Hidden Costs of Industrial Agriculture). In addition this singular diet experienced by bees of professional pollinators causes a weakened immune system and subsequent health issues.
"There is a growing body of evidence showing that poor nutrition can be a major player in affecting honey bee health. Eischen and Graham (2008) demonstrated that well-nourished honey bees are less susceptible to Nosema ceranae than poorly nourished bees. Naug (2009) tested the hypothesis that nutritional stress due to habitat loss has played a major role in causing CCD by analyzing the land use data in U.S. He showed a significant correlation between the number of colony loss from each state and the state’s ratio of open land relative to its developed land area." Zachary Huang, Michigan State University
Bee Friendly Farming practices are essential for a healthy bee population. Specifically, adopting a 6% diverse pollinator beneficial planting farming practice. Different pollens have different nutritional value to bees and studies have shown a slight improvement in performance when feeding on Dandelion (Nutritional Value of Bee Collected Pollens). Interestingly for me two of the best pollens for bees, blackberry and cottonwood are aggressive volunteers in our garden.
Although the plum and flowering cherry blossoms are finished for us there is an amazing number of plants coming into blossom like the apple, pear, cherry, bulbs, purple deadnettle and marsh marigold. Also, today was the first day I saw Raspberry flower formation which for us is the major bee forage in May through June.
Please put away the Roundup and let your Dandelions grow. You can control the spread of the plant by removing the flowers before they go to seed (Dandelion Wine ?). Your bees will thank you.
This quote from Charles Darwin is applicable to present day bees. Bees have a very weak immune system and are not very adaptive to environmental changes caused by us. Global warming and the increased presence of agrichemical toxins are conditions many species of bees will not survive. Their extinction will effect others species dependent on their pollination.
I think like many of us Charles had a special place in his heart for Bumble Bees or Humble Bees as they were known prior to World War I. With the help of 5 or 6 of his children between the years 1854-1861 Charles made a number of recorded observations on the flight routes of male Humble Bees (Charles Darwin on the routes of male Humble Bees). In the first edition of "On the Origin of the Species" by Charles Darwin (1859) he describes how essential Bumble Bees are for the pollination of plants and specifically the red clover (Trifolium pratense). This he explains is because of it's unique ability to reach the nectar which eludes other bees. (Different pollinators for different plants)
"Charles Darwin wrote of "humble-bees"... "plants and animals, most
remote in the scale of nature, are bound together by a web of complex
relations. [...] I have [...] reason to believe that humble-bees are
indispensable to the fertilisation of the heartsease (Viola tricolor),
for other bees do not visit this flower. From experiments which I have
tried, I have found that the visits of bees, if not indispensable, are
at least highly beneficial to the fertilisation of our clovers; but
humble-bees alone visit the common red clover (Trifolium pratense), as
other bees cannot reach the nectar. Hence I have very little doubt, that
if the whole genus of humble-bees became extinct or very rare in
England, the heartsease and red clover would become very rare, or wholly
disappear. The number of humble-bees in any district depends in a great
degree on the number of field-mice, which destroy their combs and
nests; and Mr. H. Newman, who has long attended to the habits of
humble-bees, believes that 'more than two thirds of them are thus
destroyed all over England.' Now the number of mice is largely
dependent, as every one knows, on the number of cats; and Mr. Newman
says, 'Near villages and small towns I have found the nests of
humble-bees more numerous than elsewhere, which I attribute to the
number of cats that destroy the mice.' Hence it is quite credible that
the presence of a feline animal in large numbers in a district might
determine, through the intervention first of mice and then of bees, the
frequency of certain flowers in that district!" (from Chapter 3 "On the Origin of the Species").
A logical extension made in jest by Thomas Henry Huxley (Huxley, 1892) was " that old maids keep cats, and by unknown others to include the concepts that the economy of the British Empire
was based on roast beef eaten by its soldiers, and cattle rely on clover, so as to conclude that the prosperity of the British Empire was thus dependant on its population of old maids." (Charles Darwin, Humble Bees, Clover and Cats).
Bombus pascuorum (Common Carder-bee) on red clover
As most bumblebees are ground dwellers their existence depends upon the population of nest destroying mice whose population depends on the subsequent population of predatory cats. Therefore, the greater the population of cats the greater the number of bumblebees and the greater the pollination of red clover. We must also consider the negative effect of cat predation on birds, amphibians and reptiles. This is why an ecosystem functioning in equilibrium (balanced populations) is so important.
In May of 1858 with the aid of a beekeeper Darwin carried out studies on honey bee cell building at his home in Kent, England. "For people to accept his theory of evolution by natural selection Darwin knew that he had to explain how the hexagonal cells found in the wax of the beehive were fortified by natural processes. As a result of his observations he concluded that the hexagonal shape is produced as a result of spherical cells touching each other and the bees using the minimum amount of wax possible. The experiments are described in "On the Origin of the Species".
The family home of Charles Darwin is wonderfully preserved in Kent and is much the same as it was in the 19th century when he and his children carried out their observations of both the honey and humble bee.
Due to habitat loss and the use of agrichemicals many species of Humble Bees are endangered. In Britain the Bumble Bee Conservation Trust is working to save the Humble Bees. In North American join Bumble Bee Watch to help endangered species of Humble Bees.
Left Bombus Mixtus (Male) and right Bomus Caliginosus or Bombus Vosnesenskii on a sunflower at Cottonwood Garden
My favorite an Orange Rumped Humble Bee (Bombus melanopygus) enjoying a cranesbill geranium at Cottonwood Garden
While you may not have this much fun labeling your honey jars there is no reason why it can't be enjoyable and creative. Note that this posting is for backyard, non professional beekeepers. The legal regulations for labeling honey jars for sale vary according to where you live. In Europe this includes whether or not your honey contains pollen (has not been micro filtered) or was derived from Genetically Modified Plants. In my opinion both of these considerations are very important and should be included on commercially produced honey.
Whether you are canning produce from your garden, bottling jams or labeling honey jars most of us will begin with hand written labels meant to identify the product and when it was produced (Jars can get lost in the pantry for years). A good idea is to get your children to do this.
By using label templates you can easily upgrade the design of your labels. I have found that they are easy to use and allow your to personalize a gift.
Once you have chosen your label you can use a free image editing program like Gimp or my favorite Photoscape to add words to your template. With Photoscape you open the program, go to editor, choose your template on the left side, click on "Object" and choose either "Text" or "Rich Edit" to add words. You can then choose the size, type and color of font you want to use. When finished save your label, print it, cut it out and glue to your jar. I use regular printing paper and minimal glue as a lot of glue tends to discolor the label.
Botulism in honey is a risk to babies under the age of 1 year. Although the risk is minimal it is recommended (to be on the safe side) that you not feed honey to infants under the age of one. If you are giving jars to those you don't know you may want to include a warning label.
For commercial beekeepers the regulations on labeling food products is changing constantly and very dependent on where you live and how much you sell. For example in Florida beekeepers are now allowed to sell their honey from home (not stores) using a Florida Cottage Food Label as long as they do not exceed $15,000 in revenue. There are no regulations on non commercial home canning or honey production so like the ladies in the video above have fun and be creative.
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